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  • @hlc
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    De quoi une plateforme (numérique) est-elle le nom ? | Antonio A. Casilli
    ►http://www.casilli.fr/2017/10/01/de-quoi-une-plateforme-est-elle-le-nom

    http://www.casilli.fr/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/englishcivilwar_cromwell.jpg

    Point de départ : les travaux de Tarleton Gillespie, qui s’est penché (avant et mieux que d’autres) sur l’utilisation de la notion de plateforme pour qualifier les services contemporains d’appariement algorithmique d’informations, relations, biens et services.

    Sa théorie peut être ainsi résumée : le mot plateforme est avant tout une métaphore qui désigne une structure technique, voire une “architecture” (c’est par ailleurs de ce dernier domaine que l’emprunt linguistique s’est fait). Le choix de ce terme pour désigner une entité technologique relève d’une volonté de concepteurs, innovateurs et investisseurs de se présenter comme des simples intermédiaires, et non pas comme des moteurs d’interaction sociale et de décision stratégique dans le domaine économique. La plateforme n’est qu’une charpente, sur laquelle d’autres (usagers, entreprises, institutions) construisent. (← c’est toujours Gillespie qui résume les arguments des proprios des plateformes, hein…).

    Mais le premier usage éminemment politique du terme pour signifier une vision de la société et le rôle des êtres humains vis-à-vis des autorités et d’eux-mêmes, est principalement développé par Gerrard Winstanley, le fondateur du mouvement des Bêcheux (les “Diggers”). Nous sommes en 1652, sous le protectorat d’Oliver Cromwell. Gerrard Winstanley écrit un texte fondateur de son mouvement proto-communiste : l’essai The Law of Freedom in a Platform [Bien évidemment “proto-communiste” comme on pouvait l’être en ce siècle : des appels à l’autorité divine et de la spiritualité à fond la caisse… En même temps, c’est là que le terme “platform” s’affranchit de son origine religieuse.]

    Le texte de Winstanley pose quelques principes de base d’un programme politique (la plateforme proprement dite) adapté à une société d’individus libres :
    – mise en commun des ressources productives,
    – abolition de la propriété privée,
    – abolition du travail salarié.

    Le terme désigne désormais un pacte (“covenant”) entre une pluralité d’acteurs politiques qui négocient de manière collective l’accès à un ensemble de ressources et de prérogatives communes.

    Via les écrits Winstanley ou de Churchill, il est possible d’identifier une généalogie alternative à celle proposée par Gillespie—une généalogie plus précisément politique, ainsi qu’un autre usage du terme, qui cesse d’être une simple métaphore pour devenir un levier d’action. Au vu de ceci, la reprise capitaliste (par les plateformes numériques privées) et régalienne (par l’Etat-plateforme) de cette notion au début du XXIe siècle, est moins une imitation métaphorique qu’une récupération et un détournement de ces principes.

    #Plateforme #Histoire #Linguistique

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  • @colporteur
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    De quoi une plateforme (numérique) est-elle le nom ? | Antonio A. Casilli
    ►http://www.casilli.fr/2017/10/01/de-quoi-une-plateforme-est-elle-le-nom

    http://www.casilli.fr/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/englishcivilwar_cromwell.jpg

    C’est à l’occasion de la Grande Rébellion anglaise de 1642-1660 que “platform” s’impose comme une conception politique et religieuse très particulière et comme un outil concret, dont l’usage n’est pas exclusivement métaphorique.

    C’est là que la transition de simple métaphore à notion de théologie religieuse à part entière s’achève. Bien évidemment, il y a la Cambridge Platform de 1648 (document des églises congrégationalistes puritaines du New England cité supra ). Un autre document de ce type est la Savoy Declaration (1658) qui propose “a platform of Discipline” : articles de foi et règles de gouvernance des congrégations. Ces règles régissent les questions religieuses et imposent des pratiques (“Models & Platforms of [a given] subject”).

    Mais le premier usage éminemment politique du terme pour signifier une vision de la société et le rôle des êtres humains vis-à-vis des autorités et d’eux-mêmes, est principalement développé par Gerrard Winstanley, le fondateur du mouvement des Bêcheux (les “Diggers”). Nous sommes en 1652, sous le protectorat d’Oliver Cromwell. Gerrard Winstanley écrit un texte fondateur de son mouvement proto-communiste : l’essai The Law of Freedom in a Platform [Bien évidemment “proto-communiste” comme on pouvait l’être en ce siècle : des appels à l’autorité divine et de la spiritualité à fond la caisse… En même temps, c’est là que le terme “platform” s’affranchit de son origine religieuse.]

    Le texte de Winstanley pose quelques principes de base d’un programme politique (la plateforme proprement dite) adapté à une société d’individus libres :
    – mise en commun des ressources productives,
    – abolition de la propriété privée,
    – abolition du travail salarié.

    Le terme désigne désormais un pacte (“covenant”) entre une pluralité d’acteurs politiques qui négocient de manière collective l’accès à un ensemble de ressources et de prérogatives communes.

    (...) la reprise capitaliste (par les plateformes numériques privées) et régalienne (par l’Etat-plateforme) de cette notion au début du XXIe siècle, est moins une imitation métaphorique qu’une récupération et un détournement de ces principes.

    Les principes détournés :
    1) la mise en commun (la “polity by Commons” de Churchill) se transforme en “partage” sur les plateformes de la soi-disant sharing economy ;
    Les principes détournés :
    2) l’abolition du travail salarié (la critique de Winstanley de la servitude par le “work in hard drudgery for day wages”) se transforme en précarisation de l’emploi et en glorification du “freelance” dans les plateformes d’intermédiation du travail ;
    3) l’abolition de la propriété privée (le communisme agraire des diggers) se transforme en “ouverture” de certaines ressources productives (telles les données) dans les programmes de l’Etat-plateforme.

    Bref, l’expression plateforme n’est pas une simple métaphore, mais une dégradation/évolution d’un concept du XVIIe siècle. En tant que telle, elle reste porteuse d’implications et prescriptions politiques implicites qu’il serait nuisible d’égarer—si on abandonnait la notion.

    #plateforme #Winstanley #levellers #diggers #niveleurs

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  • @mad_meg
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    5 British Witch Trials | Mental Floss
    ▻http://mentalfloss.com/article/87880/5-british-witch-trials

    http://images.mentalfloss.com/sites/default/files/styles/article_640x430/public/primwitch_0.jpg

    The Salem witch trials of 1692 to ’93 might be among the most famous in history but they were by no means alone—nor was the paranoia that surrounded the grim witch hunts of the 17th and 18th centuries unique to New England. Witch trials were being carried out all across Europe right through to around 1800. Here are the stories behind five witch trials from across Great Britain.

    #histoire #hitoricisation #femmes #sorcières

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      1. BIDEFORD, DEVON

      https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/df/Witchplaque.JPG

      The Bideford witch trial that took place in Devon in the far southwest of England in 1682 was one of the last in England to lead to an execution. The three women involved were Temperance Lloyd, a local widow (who had already been acquitted of the murder of a man by witchcraft in 1671), and two beggars, Mary Trembles and Susanna Edwards, who had allegedly been spotted conversing and begging for food with Temperance. Together, the three were suspected of causing the illness of a local woman, Grace Thomas, by supernatural means—although the full list of accusations thrown at the trio included a claim that a demonic figure in league with Temperance had transformed himself into a magpie and flown through Grace’s window to peck her while she slept; Grace later reported that she had suffered “sticking and pricking pains, as though pins and awls had been thrust into her body, from the crown of her head to the soles of her feet.”

      Despite a great deal of the evidence brought against the women being little more than hearsay, all three were found guilty and executed on August 25 at Heavitree, outside Exeter. A plaque commemorating the women on the wall of Exeter’s Rougemont Castle, where the trials were held, is dedicated to “the hope of an end to persecution and intolerance.”

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      2. WARBOYS, CAMBRIDGESHIRE

      http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-6oEXfCOI-M0/U2vPsNwnwvI/AAAAAAAAqBE/EalLuPB5QBY/s1600/Warboys+witches.jpg

      In 1589, a young family named the Throckmortons moved into the manor house beside the church in the tiny rural English village of Warboys, 20 miles north of Cambridge. Soon afterwards, one of the family’s young daughters, Jane, began suffering seizures and fits, which the local doctors found impossible to ease or cure. Then one day the Throckmortons’ neighbors—John and Alice Samuel, and their daughter Agnes—happened to pay the family a visit, but as soon as Alice arrived and took a seat by the fire, Jane’s condition suddenly worsened, and she began to point wildly at Alice, screaming, “Look where the old witch sits!” The mother quickly rebuked Jane and thought nothing more of it. But as more of the children began showing similar symptoms and a respected physician was unable to discover the cause, suspicions returned to the Samuels.

      Even Lady Cromwell, the wife of Oliver Cromwell’s grandfather and a close friend of the Throckmortons, once confronted Alice about her apparent crimes; when Lady Cromwell died a little over a year later, her “murder” was added to the list of crimes of which the Samuel family were eventually accused. Imprisoned and tried before the Bishop of Lincoln, Alice, John, and Agnes Samuel were all found guilty of witchcraft and hanged in April 1593.

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      3. NORTH BERWICK, EAST LOTHIAN

      http://www.thistlycrosscider.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2015/10/witch-stone.jpg

      The North Berwick witch trials of the late 16th century are notable not only for the sheer number of people involved (over the two years from 1590 to ’92, around a hundred supposed witches and warlocks were implicated in the case), but because the trials were, for much of their duration, personally overseen by the king himself, James VI of Scotland. James was convinced that a local coven of witches had together raised a storm to wreck the ship on which he and his new bride, Anne of Denmark, were returning home from their wedding in Norway. Once suspicions were raised, one of the first to be accused was Geillis “Gelie” Duncan, the young servant of a local chamberlain, who confessed under torture to practicing witchcraft when her apparent gift for healing the sick aroused suspicion. Duncan implicated three further people in her confession, who each implicated several others, who were all then in turn brought in for questioning. One of the accused, Agnes Simpson, a local midwife and healer, was even taken before the king himself for questioning; after confessing to more than 50 crimes brought against her—including relieving the pains of a woman in labor by suffering them herself, and even baptizing a cat—Simpson was executed in January 1591. Another, Euphame MacCalzean, was burned alive without being granted the “mercy” of being hanged first, an astonishingly severe sentence even for the 16th century. In all, a total of six supposed witches were executed.

      Eventually, the supposed network of witchcraft James and his court uncovered led him to believe that his cousin Francis Stuart (or Stewart), 5th Earl of Bothwell, had been behind the entire plot, and had worked with the coven to plot to kill the king and secure the throne for himself. In 1593, however, Bothwell staged a short-lived coup in James’s court and took the opportunity to have himself acquitted of the charges against him. After James retook control, Bothwell fled into exile and died in Naples in 1612.

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      4. PENDLE HILL, LANCASHIRE

      https://historywitch.files.wordpress.com/2015/08/pendlehill_lisagraves.jpg

      The Pendle Hill witch trials of 1612 are amongst the most famous in British history, partly because their events are so well documented, partly because a number of those involved genuinely believed that they had supernatural powers, and partly because so many of the accused were eventually executed: Only one of the dozen individuals implicated in the case, Alice Grey, was found not guilty, and one, Margaret Pearson, was sentenced to being pilloried, but was spared the gallows.

      The trials began when a young woman named Alizon Device, from Pendle in Lancashire in northwest England, was accused of cursing a local shopkeeper who soon afterwards suffered a bout of ill health, now believed to have probably been a mild stroke. When news of this reached the authorities, an investigation was started that eventually led to the arrest and trial of several members of Alizon’s family (including her grandmother, Elizabeth Southerns, a notorious practitioner of witchcraft known locally as “Demdike”), as well as members of another local family, the Redfernes, with whom they had reportedly had a long-standing feud. Many of the families’ friends were also implicated in the trial, as were a number of supposed witches from nearby towns who were alleged to have attended a meeting at Elizabeth Southerns’s home on the night of Good Friday 1612.

      The first to be tried (in a different but related case) was Jennet Preston, who was found guilty and executed in York on July 29; the last was Alizon Device herself, who, like her grandmother, was reportedly convinced that she indeed had powers of witchcraft and freely admitted her guilt. In all, 10 men and women were hanged as a result of the trials.

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      5. SAMLESBURY, LANCASHIRE

      https://streetsofsalem.files.wordpress.com/2013/08/potts_thomas-the_vvonderfull_discouerie_of_witches-stc-20138-1554_24-p8.jpg

      Following the arrest of Alizon Device in Pendle in 1612, the discovery that witchcraft was being practiced in Lancashire caused a wave of paranoia that swept across the county and eventually implicated three women—Jane Southworth, Jennet Bierley, and her daughter Ellen (or Eileen) Bierley—from the neighboring village of Samlesbury. Tried at the same Lancashire hearing as the Pendle witches, the trio were suspected of witchcraft by Jennet’s 14-year-old granddaughter, and Ellen’s niece, Grace Sowerbutts. Her grim testimonial accused the women of everything from shape-shifting (Jennet had reportedly transformed herself into a dog right before Grace’s eyes), to cavorting with demons (“black things going upright, yet not like men in the face,” as Grace described them), to cannibalism (the three women had supposedly abducted a young baby from a local merchant, Thomas Walshman, and drank blood from its navel; when the baby died a few days later, they were accused of robbing the grave and cooking the remains).

      Unlike the trial of the Pendle witches, however, the Samlesbury trial was quickly turned on its head. With the evidence against them concluded, Jane, Jennet and Ellen were finally given the chance to speak and immediately pleaded with the judge not for clemency or mercy, as might have been expected, but to force Grace to tell the court who had coerced her into making the accusations against them. Grace’s immediate look of guilt raised the judge’s suspicions, and he ordered her to be taken from the court and interrogated by two justices of the peace. When they returned, it emerged that the entire grim story had been concocted by a local priest who—at a time of considerable religious upheaval in Britain—had strong-armed Grace into incriminating her Protestant relatives. All three women were acquitted.

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  • @klaus
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    K. Marx - Le Capital Livre I : XXV.I
    ►https://www.marxists.org/francais/marx/works/1867/Capital-I/kmcapI-25-1.htm

    La religion fleurit surtout là où les prêtres subissent le plus de macérations, de même que la loi là où les avocats crèvent de faim (William Petty)

    Der Akkumulationsprozeß des Kapitals - 23. Das allgemeine Gesetz der kapitalistischen Akkumulation
    ►http://www.mlwerke.de/me/me23/me23_640.htm

    Die Religion blüht am besten, wenn die Priester am meisten kasteit werden, wie das Recht am besten, wo die Advokaten verhungern.

    William Petty - 26 May 1623 – 16 December 1687
    ▻https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Petty

    Sir William Petty FRS (26 May 1623 – 16 December 1687) was an English economist, scientist and philosopher. He first became prominent serving Oliver Cromwell and Commonwealth in Ireland. He developed efficient methods to survey the land that was to be confiscated and given to Cromwell’s soldiers. He also managed to remain prominent under King Charles II and King James II, as did many others who had served Cromwell.

    He was Member of the Parliament of England briefly and was also a scientist, inventor, and entrepreneur, and was a charter member of the Royal Society. It is for his theories on economics and his methods of political arithmetic that he is best remembered, however, and to him is attributed the philosophy of laissez-faire in relation to government activity.

    #devise_du_jour #économie #histoire

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    A short history of passports | Destinations | Wanderlust
    ▻http://www.wanderlust.co.uk/magazine/articles/destinations/a-short-history-of-passports?page=all

    The oldest British passport still in existence was signed by Charles I in 1641. Three years later, Charles was dethroned and Oliver Cromwell’s miserablist regime developed an early prototype of the No Fly List by decreeing that no pass be issued to citizens until they promised they would not ‘be aiding, assisting, advising or counselling against the Commonwealth’. The No Sail List lapsed under Charles II who persuaded the secretary of the state to sign these letters so he could cavort with his floozies. Peter the Great, Russia’s ruthless modernising tsar, introduced passports in 1719 and, ingeniously anticipating the multi-tasking 21st-century ID card, used them to control taxes and military service.

    England’s letters of safe conduct were first written in Latin and English but, in 1772, the government decided to use the international language of high finance and diplomacy: French. This didn’t change until 1858, which meant that Britain’s passports were issued in French even as the empire fought Napoleon.

    Spy catchers

    In the 19th century, the passport system began to collapse as railways criss-crossed Europe. To the French government, the rigmarole of issuing such documents and checking those of every Tom, Dick and Harriet seemed pointless. In 1861, France abolished passports and many European countries happily followed suit. The passport returned, however, during the First World War in an effort to keep spies at bay .

    #flicage #histoire

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