• The world’s poorest people won’t be able to migrate to escape climate disasters

    Climate change-driven heat waves, droughts, and floods will push vulnerable people into more extreme poverty, Harvard researcher says.

    Climate change will cause more intense droughts, extreme flooding, and crippling heat waves in many parts of the world.

    In response, some people may become climate refugees.

    But Hélène Benveniste of Harvard University found that as conditions become more extreme, it will get harder for many of the world’s poorest and most vulnerable people to move. So some will be unable to escape.

    “It’s costly to move, particularly if you’re going to move further away, and especially if you’re going to move across borders,” she says.

    Climate-change-driven heat waves, droughts, and floods can damage crops and destroy houses — pushing low-income people even further into poverty.

    Extreme weather could also make it more difficult for just one or two family members to move away and send money back home.

    “What that means is kind of a double whammy,” Benveniste says. “You have climate change impacts in origin communities in those locations … but you also have limited options of having access to credit that is being sent back to origin communities because migrants are not being able to leave in the first place.”

    So Benveniste says that as much as the world is focused on climate refugees, we also need to pay attention to people who cannot afford to escape climate disasters at all.

    https://yaleclimateconnections.org/2023/09/the-worlds-poorest-people-wont-be-able-to-migrate-to-escape-

    #réfugiés_climatiques #réfugiés_environnementaux #pauvreté #migrations #vulnérabilité

    • Climate change increases resource-constrained international immobility

      Migration is a widely used adaptation strategy to climate change impacts. Yet resource constraints caused by such impacts may limit the ability to migrate, thereby leading to immobility. Here we provide a quantitative, global analysis of reduced international mobility due to resource deprivation caused by climate change. We incorporate both migration dynamics and within-region income distributions in an integrated assessment model. We show that climate change induces decreases in emigration of lowest-income levels by over 10% in 2100 for medium development and climate scenarios compared with no climate change and by up to 35% for more pessimistic scenarios including catastrophic damages. This effect would leave resource-constrained populations extremely vulnerable to both subsequent climate change impacts and increased poverty.

      https://www.nature.com/articles/s41558-022-01401-w

  • #Migrations_climatiques : l’#Afrique_de_l’Est et la #Corne_de_l’Afrique montrent la voie

    Une nouvelle déclaration pourrait créer un précédent en matière de coopération régionale sur la crise du changement climatique en Afrique.

    La coopération régionale et la liberté de circulation sont essentielles pour bien gérer les migrations et les déplacements dus au climat. Or, ces deux outils sont peu utilisés. L’Afrique de l’Est et la Corne de l’Afrique, durement frappées par le changement climatique, sont des régions pionnières dans la reconnaissance de leur importance.

    Les pays de la Corne de l’Afrique, qui contribuent à hauteur de 0,1 % aux émissions mondiales, sont confrontés à une mauvaise saison des pluies pour la quatrième année consécutive, un phénomène climatique jamais observé en quarante ans. Au moins 36,1 millions de personnes ont été touchées par la sécheresse et 8,9 millions de têtes de bétail ont péri. Plus de 16 millions de personnes n’ont pas un accès suffisant à l’eau potable et 20,5 millions sont confrontées à une situation d’insécurité alimentaire aiguë et à une malnutrition croissante dans certaines régions en Éthiopie, en Somalie et au Kenya. En Somalie, plus d’un million de personnes ont été déplacées, principalement des femmes et des enfants.

    L’irrégularité des précipitations a provoqué une sécheresse dans certaines régions d’Afrique de l’Est et de la Corne de l’Afrique, ainsi que de graves crues soudaines et des inondations par débordement de cours d’eau, comme au Soudan du Sud, en Ouganda et au Burundi. Depuis le début de la saison des pluies en mai, les inondations au Soudan ont endommagé 238 établissements de santé, 1 500 sources d’eau et ont emporté plus de 1 500 latrines. Les inondations de 2021 au Soudan du Sud seraient les pires que le Soudan ait connues depuis ces soixante dernières années.

    En avril 2021, le Burundi avait déclaré l’état d’urgence lorsque des inondations avaient détruit des maisons et des cultures et déplacé des milliers de personnes. Cette même année, 2,6 millions de personnes ont été déplacées en Afrique subsaharienne en raison de catastrophes liées au climat.

    La communauté internationale a mis longtemps à s’attaquer aux liens entre changement climatique et migration

    Le changement climatique est l’une des principales causes des migrations et des déplacements internes et transfrontaliers. Ce phénomène devrait s’accentuer à mesure que les effets du changement climatique se feront de plus en plus durement ressentir. La Banque mondiale prévoit qu’il pourrait y avoir jusqu’à 85,7 millions de migrants climatiques en Afrique subsaharienne à l’horizon 2050. Malgré cela, la communauté internationale a mis du temps à aborder la question de la corrélation entre le changement climatique et la migration.

    Les choses changent cependant, le climat et la mobilité humaine étant de plus en plus souvent inscrits dans les cadres juridiques et politiques à tous les niveaux en Afrique. En juillet, les pays de l’Autorité intergouvernementale pour le développement (IGAD) et la Communauté de l’Afrique de l’Est (CAE) ont signé la déclaration ministérielle de Kampala sur les migrations, le changement climatique et l’environnement. En 2020, les États de l’IGAD avaient adopté le Protocole sur la libre circulation des personnes dans la région de l’IGAD – le premier document à traiter spécifiquement des personnes fuyant les catastrophes et les changements climatiques.

    La nature intersectorielle du changement climatique et des migrations pose d’importants problèmes de gouvernance. Étant donné que de nombreux ministères et entités étatiques sont concernés, il n’existe pas à ce jour de politique ou de législation unique pour faire face aux déplacements provoqués par le climat. Au contraire, on recense au moins 50 cadres et mécanismes politiques sur la migration, le changement climatique et la réduction des risques de catastrophe qui abordent différemment le lien entre le changement climatique et la mobilité en Afrique.

    La coopération régionale est essentielle car la migration climatique est par nature transfrontalière. Les réponses telles que la déclaration de Kampala permettent de sensibiliser l’opinion aux menaces existantes, d’établir des priorités et des plans d’action communs et de mobiliser la communauté internationale afin d’obtenir un soutien pour leur mise en œuvre.

    On recense au moins 50 cadres politiques abordant différents aspects du lien entre changement climatique et mobilité en Afrique

    Cette déclaration prévoit 13 mesures, dont le renforcement de la résilience au changement climatique et des interventions d’adaptation, la promulgation de lois, de politiques et de stratégies régionales et nationales, et l’introduction d’environnements réglementaires qui favorisent l’exploitation des avantages issus des transferts de fonds, du commerce et des investissements.

    Parmi ces mesures, l’investissement dans les économies circulaires et vertes et le renforcement des instituts météorologiques et climatiques sont encouragés. Il est également prévu de créer un groupe de travail interministériel sur le changement climatique, l’environnement et la migration et de demander aux principales parties de soutenir la déclaration lors de la Conférence des Nations unies sur le changement climatique (COP27) qui se tiendra en Égypte en novembre.

    Outre les pays membres de l’IGAD et de la CAE, la déclaration de Kampala a reçu un soutien de haut niveau de tout le continent. Parmi les représentants de pays éminents étaient présents : le Sénégal, qui assure actuellement la présidence de l’Union africaine ; l’Égypte, qui préside la COP27 ; l’Algérie ; la Zambie, qui préside actuellement le Groupe africain de négociateurs sur le changement climatique. Les messages clés de la déclaration devraient donc être repris lors de la COP27 et d’autres forums régionaux et continentaux.

    Les protocoles régionaux permettant la libre circulation peuvent augmenter de manière significative la protection et les ressources pour les populations qui émigrent en raison des effets du changement climatique. Ce type de mesure favorise la création d’emplois et les échanges commerciaux, tout en offrant à leurs bénéficiaires les moyens d’accéder à d’autres possibilités de revenus et à d’autres compétences. La libre circulation permet les migrations transfrontalières circulaires et saisonnières, donnant la possibilité aux migrants de rentrer chez eux avec des transferts financiers et sociaux, y compris des connaissances, des technologies et des compétences.

    Pour l’Afrique de l’Est et la Corne de l’Afrique, la migration est une mesure d’adaptation vitale qu’il convient de favoriser

    La libre circulation a également l’avantage de réduire la nécessité de définir la notion de réfugié climatique. Bien que couramment utilisée, l’expression « réfugiés climatiques » est trompeuse. En effet, la Convention de 1951 sur les réfugiés protège les personnes menacées de persécution, mais ne concerne pas la dégradation de l’environnement ou les catastrophes naturelles. La Convention de 1969 de l’Organisation de l’unité africaine sur les réfugiés élargit la définition des réfugiés mais ne couvre toujours pas la dégradation de l’environnement. Cela signifie qu’il existe toujours un vide normatif dans le droit des réfugiés qui fuient les effets du changement climatique.

    Les protocoles de libre circulation ont été conçus pour améliorer l’intégration régionale et le développement économique. Le protocole de l’IGAD est le premier du genre à protéger les personnes qui se déplacent vers les pays voisins avant, pendant ou après la survenue de menaces environnementales et à leur permettre d’y séjourner jusqu’à ce qu’elles puissent rentrer en toute sécurité dans leur pays d’origine.

    L’Afrique de l’Est et la Corne de l’Afrique sont confrontées à de graves menaces climatiques. Leurs actions collectives reconnaissent la migration comme une mesure d’adaptation vitale qui devrait être autorisée de manière sûre et ordonnée afin d’optimiser le développement. La déclaration de Kampala et le protocole de libre circulation de l’IGAD créent de nouveaux précédents qui devraient inspirer d’autres organismes régionaux et les inciter à adopter la même démarche.

    https://issafrica.org/fr/iss-today/migrations-climatiques-lafrique-de-lest-et-la-corne-de-lafrique-montrent-

    #réfugiés_climatiques #réfugiés_environnementaux #mobilité #déclaration_de_Kampala #libre_circulation #coopération_régionale #Afrique #exemple #changement_climatique #climat #IGAD_Free_Movement_Protocol #IGAD

    ping @isskein @karine4

  • The Big Climate Movement: Migration and displacement in times of climate change

    Welcome to "The Big Climate Movement: Migration & displacement in times of climate change,” a series of 12 bite-sized videos featuring Dr. Caroline Zickgraf and Dr. François Gemenne of the Hugo Observatory, Dr. Yvonne Su of York University, and 8 young climate activists from 7 countries. In this series, you will explore the contested relationship between climate change and mobility, discover why the term ’climate refugee’ is so controversial, and learn why it is hard to predict numbers of those who will be on the move. You’ll never look at a headline about “climate migration” the same! The series also includes two key case studies, input from youth activists from around the world, and a bonus clip at the end about Coronavirus and its connection to mobility and migration.

    https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PL0i55_U4aP2Js9XJhbfmsOyPprpBWKUZg

    voir aussi:
    http://migrationmatters.me/big-climate-movement
    #changement_climatique #climat #migrations #asile #réfugiés_environnementaux #réfugiés_climatiques #vidéos #ressources_pédagogiques

  • Identifying Climate Adaptive Solutions to Displacement in Somalia

    This assessment report created by Samuel Hall for IOM, UNEP, and the Directorate for Environment and Climate Change of the Somali Government explores the interactions between climate change, displacement and urbanisation. It answers two key questions in the context of the Somali cities of Baidoa and Kismayo: What factors trigger climate-induced migration? And what adaptive and transformative solutions may contribute to building resilience amid displacement and climate change – at both the community and policy levels?

    https://www.samuelhall.org/publications/iom-amp-unep-nbspidentifying-climate-adaptive-solutions-to-displacement-

    table des matières:

    #changement_climatique #Somalie #rapport #IDPs #déplacés_internes #réfugiés_environnementaux #réfugiés_climatiques

  • The convergence of climate change and migration in cities

    Rising sea levels, increasing resource scarcity, acute desertification and greater frequency and severity of extreme weather events are having complex and cascading impacts across the globe. One significant impact is human mobility. The International Organization for Migration (IOM) estimates that by 2050 there could be between 25 million to 1 billion people moving either within their countries or across borders for climate-related reasons. Most of these journeys will lead to cities.

    Despite increasing recognition of need, there is still no comprehensive legal or policy framework to define people driven to move by climate, nor any internationally agreed and implemented protection mechanism. This gap affects, first and foremost, the people who move and are forcibly displaced. Critically, this also leaves those responding on the frontlines – city leaders – without the legal, financial or policy support to proactively address the challenges and leverage the opportunities.

    Cities such as Anchorage (United States), Freetown (Sierra Leone), Bristol (UK), Dhaka (Bangladesh), São Paulo (Brazil) and Houston (United States) provide examples of city leadership in addressing the challenges and opportunities that emerge at the climate-migration nexus. They are taking inclusive and integrated approaches to policymaking on this issue, leading inclusive communications and community engagement strategies, and ensuring inclusive and equitable service provision.

    This paper, the result of a partnership between C40 Cities (C40) and Mayors Migration Council (MMC), draws on the experience of those cities and more to:

    Provide city officials, experts, and practitioners with a clearer understanding of how the complex dynamics of climate change and migration play out in cities, affecting critical infrastructures and socio-economic health.

    Identify good practices from around the globe.

    Provide a resource for city advocacy efforts to ensure national and international frameworks and policymaking provide the financial, policy, data, and capacity-building support necessary for cities to continue leading the way.

    https://www.mayorsmigrationcouncil.org/paper-cities-climate-migration

    Pour télécharger le rapport:
    https://c40.my.salesforce.com/sfc/p/#36000001Enhz/a/1Q000000MxwL/gOOTlc1tsCbwyq5UVv3veuw9NcO3bp._YNQCSGwVZ8k

    #rapport #villes #urban_matters #réfugiés_urbains #asile #migrations #réfugiés #urban_refugees #réfugiés_climatiques #réfugiés_environnementaux

  • #Réfugiés_climatiques : quand attiser la « peur du migrant » masque la réalité des phénomènes migratoires

    À chaque vague, Saint-Louis s’enfonce un peu plus sous l’océan, dont le niveau ne cesse de monter ; les eaux qui assuraient jadis les moyens de subsistance de cette ville du nord du Sénégal menacent désormais sa survie même. Les Nations Unies ont déclaré que Saint-Louis était la ville d’Afrique la plus en danger du fait de l’élévation du niveau de la mer : l’Atlantique engloutit jusqu’à deux mètres de côte chaque année. Plusieurs milliers d’habitants ont été contraints de se reloger à l’intérieur des terres suite aux tempêtes et à l’inondation de Doune Baba Dièye, un village de pêcheurs des environs. Pour les personnes qui habitent toujours sur place, la vie devient de plus en plus précaire.

    Des situations comme celles-là se répètent à mesure que la #crise_climatique s’aggrave. La migration et les #déplacements_de_population induits par le climat sont en hausse, de même que l’angoisse et la désinformation qui l’accompagne. Depuis quelques années, nous observons une multiplication des propos sensationnalistes et alarmistes dans les médias et chez les responsables politiques de l’hémisphère nord, qui affirment que le #changement_climatique entraîne directement et automatiquement une #migration_de_masse, et mettent en garde, en usant d’un #vocabulaire_déshumanisant, contre l’imminence des « #flots » ou des « #vagues » de millions, voire de milliards, de migrants ou de réfugiés climatiques au désespoir qui pourraient submerger l’Europe pour fuir un hémisphère sud devenu inhabitable.

    Les prédictions apocalyptiques retiennent peut-être l’attention de l’opinion, mais elles occultent la réalité complexe du terrain et alimentent une #xénophobie et un #racisme déjà profondément enracinés en Europe en jouant sur la #peur du migrant. Elles dressent en outre un tableau très inexact : ce que révèlent les études sur le changement climatique et la migration est très différent des discours alarmistes qui ont pris place.

    Les experts s’accordent à dire que le changement climatique se répercute sur la #mobilité. Cependant, la relation entre ces deux éléments n’est pas directe, comme elle est souvent décrite, mais complexe, résultant de #causes_multiples et propre à un contexte donné. Par ailleurs, les estimations relatives à l’impact du changement climatique sur la mobilité sont mises en doute par les incertitudes quant à la manière dont évolueront à l’avenir le climat, la capacité d’adaptation des pays et les politiques migratoires internationales.

    #Mythe et réalité

    Les prévisions de millions ou de milliards de personnes déplacées au cours des prochaines décennies laissent entendre que le déplacement et la migration induits par le climat se manifesteront dans un futur éloigné alors qu’il s’agit d’une réalité bien présente. À l’échelle mondiale, le nombre de personnes déplacées à l’intérieur de leur propre pays atteint des records : près de 25 millions de personnes ont dû quitter leur foyer en 2019 suite à des catastrophes soudaines. L’aggravation des #phénomènes_météorologiques_extrêmes, comme les #typhons, les #tempêtes et les #inondations, conjuguée aux changements qui s’opèrent plus lentement, tels que l’élévation du niveau de la mer, la dégradation des sols et les variations des précipitations, devrait accroître la mobilité due au climat.

    Traiter la « #migration_climatique » comme une catégorie de migration distincte implique à tort qu’il est possible de différencier le climat des autres facteurs. Or, les décisions de quitter un endroit résultent d’une multitude d’éléments qui sont profondément liés entre eux et qui interagissent de manière complexe. Pour les personnes qui vivent de l’agriculture de subsistance, les conditions environnementales et les résultats économiques ne font qu’un, étant donné que des changements de pluviométrie ou de température peuvent entraîner de graves conséquences économiques. Caroline Zickgraf, directrice adjointe de l’Observatoire Hugo, un centre de recherche basé à l’université de Liège, en Belgique, qui étudie comment l’environnement et le changement climatique agissent sur la migration explique :

    « Si l’on ne voit pas que tous ces facteurs différents sont imbriqués – facteurs sociaux, politiques, économiques, environnementaux et démographiques – on passe vraiment à côté de la situation générale »

    Une autre idée fausse persiste au sujet du changement climatique et de la mobilité des humains, consistant à croire que la plupart des individus qui se déplacent quittent leur pays. Depuis quelque temps, l’attention vis-à-vis des migrants porte largement sur les Africains qui cherchent à aller en Europe. Cette forme de migration internationale de longue distance représente l’image la plus répandue de la migration et, pourtant, les faits indiquent que ce n’est pas la plus fréquente, mais cette réalité est souvent inaudible.

    En Afrique de l’Ouest et centrale, la migration vers l’Afrique du Nord ou l’Europe représente seulement de 10 à 20 % des déplacements, alors que les 80 à 90 % restants s’effectuent à l’intérieur de la région. « Depuis plusieurs années, l’Europe attire de moins en moins les candidats à la migration, en raison des difficultés qu’ils rencontrent pour bénéficier des programmes de régularisation, trouver du travail et rester mobiles », souligne Aly Tandian, président de l’Observatoire sénégalais des migrations et professeur de sociologie associé à l’université Gaston Berger de Saint-Louis. Les pays africains constituent les destinations principales des migrants d’#Afrique_de_l’Ouest parce qu’il n’y a pas de contraintes de visa et qu’il est plus aisé de voyager sur la terre ferme, ce qui facilite la mobilité des personnes en quête d’opportunités, outre la familiarité que procure la proximité socioculturelle et linguistique de nombreux pays d’accueil, explique-t-il.

    Hind Aïssaoui Bennani, spécialiste de la migration, de l’environnement et du changement climatique auprès de l’Organisation internationale pour les migrations à Dakar, au Sénégal, affirme que l’ampleur de la #migration_économique est souvent mal reconnue, en dépit de son importance dans l’ensemble de la région. La plupart des migrants économiques partent pour trouver du travail dans le secteur des ressources naturelles, notamment l’agriculture, la pêche et l’exploitation minière. « L’#environnement est non seulement un élément moteur de la migration, qui oblige les personnes à se déplacer mais, en plus, il les attire », précise Mme Bennani. Elle ajoute toutefois que le changement climatique peut également entraîner l’#immobilité et piéger les individus qui ne peuvent pas partir par manque de ressources ou de capacités, c’est-à-dire généralement les plus vulnérables.

    Ce qui alimente la peur

    On ne peut pas savoir combien de personnes ont quitté leur région à cause du changement climatique et, d’après les experts,il est difficile, voire impossible, de prédire avec précision le nombre de citoyens qui devront se déplacer à l’avenir, du fait de la complexité inhérente à la migration et au changement climatique. « Il va y avoir toute une série de scénarios à partir des actions que nous menons en termes de politique et de climat, mais aussi par rapport à la réaction des gens qui, souvent, n’est pas linéaire. Cela ne se résume pas à dire ‘le changement climatique s’intensifie, donc la migration s’intensifie », indique Caroline Zickgraf.

    L’année dernière, un rapport (https://www.visionofhumanity.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/ETR_2020_web-1.pdf) réalisé par le think tank international Institute for Economics and Peace a révélé que les menaces écologiques contraindraient au déplacement 1,2 milliard de personnes d’ici à 2050. Ce chiffre s’est répandu comme une traînée de poudre et a été couvert par les principaux organes de presse à travers le monde, mais plusieurs experts reconnus dans le domaine de la migration récusent ce chiffre, parmi lesquels Caroline Zickgraf, qui estime qu’il n’est pas suffisamment scientifique et qu’il résulte d’une manipulation et d’une déformation des données. À titre de comparaison, un rapport de la Banque mondiale datant de 2018 qui s’appuyait sur des techniques de modélisation scientifiques prévoyait qu’il y aurait 140 millions de migrants climatiques internes d’ici à 2050 si aucune action urgente pour le climat n’était mise en place.

    L’idée selon laquelle « le changement climatique entraîne une migration de masse » est utilisée par la gauche pour alerter sur les conséquences humanitaires du changement climatique et pour galvaniser l’action en faveur du climat, alors qu’elle sert de point de ralliement à la droite et à l’extrême droite pour justifier la militarisation des frontières et les politiques de lutte contre l’immigration. Caroline Zickgraf note :

    « Mentionner la migration dans le but d’accélérer l’action pour le climat et d’attirer l’attention sur l’incidence du changement climatique pour les populations me semble tout à fait bien intentionnée. Mais malheureusement, très souvent, c’est la question de la sécurité qui prend le dessus. On attend une action pour le climat, et on se retrouve avec des politiques migratoires restrictives parce qu’on joue avec la peur des gens. »

    La peur n’incite pas les citoyens ni les gouvernements à agir davantage pour le climat mais a plutôt tendance à exacerber le racisme et la xénophobie et à contribuer à l’édification de la « forteresse Europe ». De surcroît, présenter la « migration climatique » comme un risque pour la sécurité justifie la mise en place de programmes de financement destinés à empêcher la migration en faisant en sorte que les candidats au départ restent chez eux, ce qui est contraire au droit humain fondamental de circuler librement. Alors que l’urgence climatique augmente, la « crise européenne des réfugiés » de 2015 est de plus en plus souvent invoquée pour prédire l’avenir. Caroline Zickgraf pense qu’en recourant à des tactiques qui alarment le public, ce ne sont pas les changements climatiques qui font peur, mais « l’Autre » – celui qui doit se déplacer à cause de ces changements.

    Un autre problème émane de la recherche sur la migration elle-même : quelles études, réalisées par quels chercheurs, sont reconnues et écoutées ? D’après Aly Tandian, étant donné qu’en Europe toutes les causes de la migration ne sont pas prises en considération, les analyses européennes se limitent à leur compréhension des questions migratoires sur le terrain en Afrique. « De plus, c’est souvent l’Europe qui est mandatée pour réaliser des études sur la migration, ce qui appauvrit en partie les résultats et les décisions politiques qui sont prises », observe-t-il.

    La mobilité, une #stratégie_d’adaptation

    La tendance actuelle à présenter la migration en provenance de l’hémisphère sud comme une anomalie, un problème à résoudre ou une menace à éviter ne tient pas compte du fait que la migration n’est pas un phénomène nouveau. Depuis la nuit des temps, la mobilité est une stratégie d’adaptation des humains pour faire face aux changements du climat ou de l’environnement. Et il ne s’agit pas toujours d’un moyen d’échapper à une crise. « La migration est une question de résilience et d’adaptation et, en Afrique de l’Ouest et centrale, la migration fait déjà partie de la solution », note Hind Aïssaoui Bennani.

    Dans certains endroits, nous devrons peut-être, et c’est souhaitable, faciliter la migration de manière préventive, dit Caroline Zickgraf, en veillant à ce que les gens migrent dans les meilleures conditions dans le contexte du changement climatique. « Ce que nous souhaitons vraiment, c’est donner le choix, et si nous considérons seulement la migration comme quelque chose de négatif, ou qui doit toujours être évité, nous ne voyons pas tous les intérêts qu’il peut y avoir à quitter une région vulnérable à l’impact du changement climatique. »

    Étant donné que le changement climatique pèse lourdement sur les fragilités et les inégalités existantes et qu’il frappera de façon disproportionnée les populations de l’hémisphère sud, alors qu’elles en sont le moins responsables, favoriser la mobilité n’est pas une simple stratégie d’adaptation, mais fait partie intégrante de la justice climatique.

    La mobilité peut permettre aux habitants de Saint-Louis et des innombrables lieux qui subissent déjà les effets du changement climatique, en termes de vies humaines et d’opportunités, d’être moins vulnérables et de vivre mieux – un rôle qui se révélera particulièrement essentiel dans un monde de plus en plus marqué par l’instabilité climatique.

    https://www.equaltimes.org/refugies-climatiques-quand-attiser?lang=fr
    #réfugiés #asile #migrations #réfugiés_environnementaux #adaptation

    ping @isskein @karine4

  • A Bangladeshi migrant becomes the first ’environmentally displaced’ person in France

    Last month, the appeals court for the Administrative Court of Bordeaux granted the status of “sick foreigner” to a Bangladeshi suffering from a respiratory disease, taking into account the air pollution in his country of origin. The decision was a first in France.

    Living in France for almost a decade, Sheel*, a Bangladeshi suffering from a respiratory disease, obtained his first “residence permit for sick foreigners” in 2015. The Toulouse-based 40-something suffers from a form of severe asthma that needs extensive treatment as well as severe sleep apnea, requiring him to sleep with breathing assistance every night.

    Despite his fragile state of health, in June 2019 his residence permit was denied renewal and he risked deportation, as the prefecture deemed that he could obtain appropriate treatment in Bangladesh. His request for family reunification with his wife, who remained in the country, was also rejected.

    A year later, the administrative court overturned the prefect’s order, arguing that while medicines to relieve asthma attacks are available for sale in Bangladesh, there is no substantive treatment. But the prefect did not stop there and took the case to the Bordeaux Court of Appeal, which on December 18, 2008, confirmed the first judgment and even added a relevant factor that was unheard of in France: that of air pollution in Bangladesh.
    Bangladesh among the most polluted countries in the world

    “This is the first time in France that a court has taken into account environmental criterion to justify a person benefitting from the status of a sick foreigner,” Ludovic Rivière, Sheel’s lawyer, told InfoMigrants. “Because it is obvious that the environmental conditions in Bangladesh today make it possible to affirm that it would be illusory for my client to be treated there, it would amount to sending him to certain death.”

    Indeed, in Dhaka, the capital of Bangladesh, the level of fine particles in the air is six times higher than that allowed by the World Health Organization (WHO). According to the WHO’s 2016 figures, some 572,600 deaths in Bangladesh are attributable to non-communicable diseases, 82% of which are due to exposure to indoor air pollution.

    Bangladesh also ranks 178th in the Environmental Performance Index, established by researchers at Yale and Columbia Universities to assess global air “quality,” ranking it among the most polluted countries in the world.

    In addition to the dangers of air pollution, the French court also recognized that the daily power cuts and high temperatures in Bangladesh did not allow the use of the night ventilation device that Sheel needs.
    Case law for ’climate refugee’ status?

    “Just as an AIDS patient cannot be sent back to a country where he cannot be treated or a death row inmate to a state that practices capital punishment, Sheel cannot be deported to Bangladesh. We are still a long way from making precedent and creating a real climate refugee status in France,” said Rivière, who now hopes that the government and the courts will consider the climate issue more systematically. “The candidates for climate exile are going to be more and more numerous, and politicians will have no choice but to address them quickly.”

    François Gemenne, a teacher and specialist in environment-related migration, also sees a “step in the right direction” but doubts that the decision of the Bordeaux Court of Appeal will be replicated. “Among the applicants for protection, there are many victims of environmental degradation, this plays a real role in the causes of departure, but it is very rarely invoked with the authorities, simply because it is almost never admissible and the applicants are well aware of this,” the researcher told InfoMigrants.

    According to Gemenne, while the Sheel case is unprecedented, environmental criteria are occasionally taken into account by the French justice system. “These are very sporadic decisions, every two or three years. There have already been several cases in which people could not be deported to their region of origin because it was too exposed to natural disasters. It should be possible to build a precedent from all these cases, except that the current political climate is not in favor of broadening the criteria for obtaining asylum,” he said.

    However, Gemenme said an existing tool could make it possible to change the situation. The Nansen Agenda, ratified by 110 countries including France in 2015, has the potential to define clear protection criteria for climate refugees, but it is not binding. France, which until December 2020 was at the head of the rotating presidency of the Platform on Disaster Related Displacement, has not announced any concrete measures in this regard.

    Sheel, for his part, said he was overwhelmed by his new status as a trailblazer in France. Relieved by the court’s decision, he wants simply to continue his life, as well as his work in the restaurant sector. His priority is restarting his family reunification file again in order to reunite with his wife, whom he has not seen for nine years.

    The United Nations Environment Programme predicts 250 million climate refugees worldwide by 2050.

    https://www.infomigrants.net/en/post/29589/a-bangladeshi-migrant-becomes-the-first-environmentally-displaced-pers

    #France #asile #migrations #réfugiés #Bangladesh #réfugiés_bangladais #réfugiés_climatiques #réfugiés_environnementaux #pollution #pollution_de_l'air #titre_de_séjour_pour_étranger_malade #maladie #titre_de_séjour #statut #maladie_respiratoire #asthma

    ping @isskein @karine4

  • Debunking myths around the displacement-climate change connection

    Misconceptions about the link between climate change and displacement can hamper humanitarian assistance efforts and protection of people affected by disasters, the head of the Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre said Tuesday.

    IDMC director Alexandra Bilak said her organization has become increasingly concerned about misperceptions around the climate change-displacement narrative, which she said is fueled by “sensationalist” media reports.

    “Increasingly, the different factors driving slow onset environmental as well as social change become difficult to disentangle one from another,” Bilak said during a virtual event Tuesday. “The interaction of social, political, environmental, and economic factors means that climate change must be understood as just one factor in a complex system that generates and perpetuates displacement risk.”

    Too often, she said, the press takes data and figures from studies and reports out of context, oversimplifying what such numbers mean. The domination of these false narratives creates misinformation about the true causes of the challenge, she said, and therefore undermines dialogue about solutions that can be pursued by policymakers.

    “I’m always uncomfortable when I see climate activists making the claim that climate change will displace zillions of people who will become climate refugees, because that claim is just not based in science.”
    — François Gemenne, director of the Hugo Observatory, lead author of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

    There is also too often a perception that displacement caused by disasters are easier to resolve than displacement caused by conflict.

    “The assumption that most people can return, can rebuild their home, and can recover soon after a disaster has struck means that some displaced people may drop off the radar and they will then miss out on some critically important assistance that is needed not just in the immediate aftermath of a disaster but also very much over the longer term,” Bilak said.

    There were more than 50.8 million people internally displaced around the world at the end of 2019, according to IDMC. There were nearly 25 million new displacements from disasters, while there were 8.5 million caused by conflict. Afghanistan, India, and Ethiopia had the largest total numbers of people internally displaced by disasters at the end of 2019, while Syria, Colombia, and the Democratic Republic of Congo had the largest total numbers internally displaced by conflict and violence.

    IDMC has tracked disaster displacement for 12 years, and Bilak said its evidence shows that displacement is generally not short-lived — but can be avoided.

    People tend to think of disasters as “inevitable,” she said, which gives the impression that displacement is natural and acceptable. This keeps the focus on preparedness and humanitarian assistance, Bilak said, rather than addressing structural, longer-term disaster risk reduction and sustainable development.

    This is particularly true when it comes to the myth of mass displacement caused by climate change to Europe or other Western countries, Bilak said. Centering the narrative on impact felt by wealthy receiving countries that have shown a tendency to close down their borders prevents any conversation about solutions and long-term resilience building. It also ignores the fact that the vast majority of people affected by climate or environmental events end up internally displaced rather than in another country.

    François Gemenne, director of the Hugo Observatory and lead author of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, said the narrative of “zillions” of people knocking on the door of Europe is “highly problematic.”

    “As lead author of the IPCC I’m always uncomfortable when I see climate activists making the claim that climate change will displace zillions of people who will become climate refugees, because that claim is just not based in science,” Gemenne said. “Most of the estimates that circulate in the press or on social networks are not based on robust estimates or robust models.”

    Although people may have good intentions, the narrative can be used to encourage governments to act against climate change as a deterrent to migration, not as the end goal itself, Gemenne said. Advocating for a reduction in emissions can instead lead to more border controls and restrictive migration policies, using people on the move as scapegoats for problems beyond their control that lead to displacement, he said.

    Trying to disentangle migration caused by climate change from other causes of displacement ignores the complexity of the entire phenomenon, Gemenne said. For example, environmental factors cannot easily be separated from economic ones.

    “The amount of money we are going to have in our bank accounts at the end of the month does not depend on the weather,” Gemenne said of the members of the virtual event panel. “But for most people on the planet, there is a direct linkage between the environmental conditions and their economic resources. And I think that we need to recognize that and that what we would label as an environmental problem is also for most people an economic problem.”

    Climate change is just one facet of the global ecosystemic crises being faced by the globe, said António Vitorino, director general of the International Organization for Migration.

    “We will, however, not be able to understand, let alone address, the different impacts of this environmental crisis unless we account for all its components and causes whether related to climate change or more broadly to the environment,” Vitorino said.

    “We must also remember that this environmental crisis is a social crisis. It is poverty, inequality and marginalization that determine people’s vulnerability.”

    https://www.devex.com/news/debunking-myths-around-the-displacement-climate-change-connection-98737

    #réfugiés_environnementaux #réfugiés_climatiques #changement_climatique #asile #migrations #réfugiés

  • Finally, Good News for Asylum Seekers in Italy. New Decree Rolls Back Some of the Worst Aspects of Immigration Policy

    It pledged last year to do so, and now the Italian government has restored some humanity to its immigration and asylum system. This week, the council of ministers adopted a decree that reverses many of the worst policies imposed by the previous interior minister and current leader of the anti-immigrant League Party, Matteo Salvini.

    The decree isn’t perfect, but it’s a step in the right direction.

    The decree, adopted October 5, essentially re-establishes in Italian law the residency permit on humanitarian grounds that Salvini abolished in 2018, now called “special protection.” This two-year permit is for people who don’t qualify for asylum, but who shouldn’t be sent away because they would face a risk of torture or inhuman or degrading treatment. The permit is also for people who have family and social links in Italy, or who suffer from serious physical or mental health issues. By one estimate, more than 37,000 people became undocumented since 2018 because humanitarian permits were abolished.

    Crucially, the decree allows people to convert this and other short-term residency permits into longer-term residency permits based on employment. This will help prevent people falling into undocumented status. The decree reduces detention pending deportation to three months from six.

    While the previous government restricted the nation’s reception system to recognized refugees and unaccompanied children, the new decree opens the doors to asylum seekers awaiting a decision. It also ensures asylum seekers have the right to register with the city hall where they live, since a Constitutional Court ruling this past July found the denial of this right made it “unjustifiably difficult for asylum seekers to access the services to which they are entitled.”

    One large blot on the decree is the failure to take a clear stand against criminalization of humanitarian activities. The government chose to reduce from 1 million to 50,000 euros, rather than eliminate, the noxious fines on ships that perform search-and-rescue at sea. Last year, six United Nations human rights authorities called on Italy to incentivize rather than discourage shipmasters from fulfilling their moral and legal obligation to respond to ships in distress. The current government has delayed disembarkations and impounded rescue vessels on administrative grounds.

    Parliament will have a chance to correct that, and make other improvements, when the decree is submitted for parliamentary oversight.

    https://www.hrw.org/news/2020/10/07/finally-good-news-asylum-seekers-italy

    #nouveau_décret #décret_salvini #Italie #asile #migrations #réfugiés #Italie #130/2020 #decreto_immigrazione #décret #SPRAR #accueil #permis_de_séjour #protection_internationale #travail #protection_spéciale #protection_humanitaire #réfugiés_environnementaux #réfugiés_climatiques #sauvetage #Méditerranée #citoyenneté #naturalisation #SIPROIMI #hébergement

    ping @karine4 @isskein

    • In vigore il nuovo decreto in materia di immigrazione (D.L. n. 130 del 21 ottobre 2020): luci e ombre

      Oggi, 22 ottobre, è entrato in vigore il Decreto-legge n. 130/2020, pubblicato in Gazzetta ufficiale il 21 ottobre 2020 e recante “Disposizioni urgenti in materia di immigrazione, protezione internazionale e complementare, modifiche agli articoli 131-bis,391-bis, 391-ter e 588 del codice penale, nonché misure in materia di divieto di accesso agli esercizi pubblici ed ai locali di pubblico trattenimento, di contrasto all’utilizzo distorto del web e di disciplina del Garante nazionale dei diritti delle persone private della libertà personale.

      Atteso da svariati mesi e noto all’opinione pubblica come “decreto immigrazione”, il decreto interviene in svariate materie, modificando anzitutto i c.d. decreti sicurezza del 2018 e 2019, che avevano a loro volta modificato alcune norme contenute nel Testo unico sull’immigrazione (D. Lgs. n. 286/1998), nonché la legge n. 91/1992 in materia di cittadinanza e i D. Lgs. n. 25/2008 e D. Lgs. n. 142/2015 (attuativi della direttiva UE c.d. Procedure e della direttiva UE c.d. Accoglienza del Sistema europeo comune di asilo).

      In altre parole, il c.d. nuovo decreto immigrazione prevede una serie di modifiche, apportate a diverse fonti normative, su tematiche sensibili, che non si limitano alla disciplina in materia d’immigrazione, ma riguardano anche la protezione internazionale e nuove ipotesi di protezione speciale, il soccorso in mare, degli aspetti relativi alla disciplina in materia di cittadinanza e all’accoglienza dei richiedenti asilo.

      In materia di immigrazione, il decreto è intervenuto, anzitutto, sui permessi di soggiorno per motivi di lavoro. Alle categorie di permessi già convertibili, sono state aggiunte le nuove ipotesi permesso per protezione speciale, calamità, residenza elettiva, acquisto della cittadinanza o dello stato di apolide, attività sportiva, lavoro di tipo artistico, motivi religiosi e assistenza ai minori.

      Quanto poi alla protezione internazionale, il nuovo decreto ha stabilito delle modifiche procedurali e sostanziali alla previgente disciplina. Le prime hanno modificato le modalità di svolgimento degli esami prioritari, delle procedure accelerate, nonché della gestione delle domande reiterate in fase di esecuzione di un provvedimento di allontanamento. Sul piano sostanziale

      Inoltre, sono estese le categorie di soggetti che possono beneficiare di permessi di soggiorno per protezione speciale, che costituirà una sorta di nuova categoria residuale di protezione rispetto alle due forme di protezione internazionale (lo status di rifugiato e la protezione internazionale), tanto da far parlare, nei primi commenti, di un sostanziale ritorno alla categoria della precedente protezione umanitaria, pur sotto altra veste terminologica.

      Nella specie, la nuova normativa prevede che non possa essere espulso o respinto e piuttosto meriti protezione, per l’appunto speciale, non solo, come già era previsto sino ad oggi, la persona che rischiava di subire torture, ma anche due nuove ipotesi: i) chi rischia di subire trattamenti inumani o degradanti nel paese d’origine e ii) chi rischia la violazione del diritto al rispetto della propria vita privata e familiare nel territorio nazionale. Inoltre la durata del permesso di soggiorno per protezione speciale è stata ampliata da 1 anno a 2 anni.

      Infine, sempre in materia di protezione complementare, è stata ampliata la nozione del permesso di soggiorno per calamità naturale: attuale presupposto per la concessione del permesso è adesso la semplice esistenza di una situazione di “grave” calamità. In altre parole, non si richiede più che lo stato di calamità sia eccezionale e transitorio come in precedenza, in un probabile tentativo di apertura alla protezione dei c.d. migranti ambientali (normando quanto già preconizzato dalla giurisprudenza della Corte di Cassazione).

      Tra le note positive, viene altresì espressamente prevista l’iscrizione del richiedente protezione internazionale nell’anagrafe della popolazione residente.

      Quanto alla questione del soccorso in mare, in seguito alle pesanti critiche ricevute sul punto dal secondo decreto sicurezza, la nuova disciplina è intervenuta modificando il quadro dei divieti e dei limiti di navigazione per le imbarcazioni delle ONG. In particolare, il Ministro dell’interno, di concerto con il Ministro della difesa e dei trasporti ed informato il Presidente del Consiglio, può ancora limitare o vietare l’ingresso e il transito in acque territoriali a navi non militari o governative non commerciali. Tuttavia, il decreto prevede una deroga a tale divieto o limite di navigazione, nell’ipotesi di navi che abbiano effettuato soccorsi a norma delle convenzioni internazionali, e che abbiano comunicato le operazioni alle autorità competenti nazionali o del loro stato di bandiera.

      Negli altri casi, invece, di “inosservanza del divieto o del limite di navigazione”, è prevista la comminazione di multe che vanno da 10mila a 50mila euro. Si ricorda che, precedentemente al nuovo decreto, in caso di violazione del divieto di cui sopra, era prevista un’ammenda amministrativa, con un limite superiore all’attuale multa (fino a un milione per chi avesse salvato i migranti in mare). Infine, con il nuovo decreto, non è più previsto il sequestro dell’imbarcazione entrata in acque territoriali in maniera irregolare.

      Per quanto riguarda la normativa in materia di cittadinanza, il decreto ha modificato la legge n.91 del 1992, riducendo il tempo di attesa della risposta alla domanda per l’acquisto della cittadinanza italiana da quattro a tre anni, un risultato comunque insoddisfacente alla luce del fatto che la formulazione originaria della legge del 1992 stabiliva una durata di due anni (ed era stato aumentato a quattro anni dal decreto sicurezza del 2018 sopramenzionato). Inoltre non è abrogata la norma che prevede la revoca della cittadinanza per chi l’ha acquisita, in caso di condanna definitiva per reati collegati al terrorismo, creando una discriminazione odiosa rispetto a chi è cittadino italiano iure sanguinis.

      Infine, in materia di accoglienza, è stato creato il nuovo Sistema di accoglienza e integrazione, che sostituisce il SIPROIMI (Sistema di protezione per titolari di protezione internazionale e per minori stranieri non accompagnati), ritornando a un sistema simile ai vecchi SPRAR (Sistema di protezione per richiedenti asilo e rifugiati). Tuttavia, le funzioni di prima assistenza o soccorso verranno gestite nei centri governativi ordinari e straordinari istituiti dal Ministro dell’Interno, quindi attraverso i grandi e largamente disfunzionali centri di prima accoglienza che abbiamo imparato a conoscere. La successiva fase di accoglienza, invece, viene affidata agli enti locali e si articolerà in due livelli di servizi, distinti a seconda che si tratti di soggetti richiedenti protezione internazionale (per i quali la normativa torna appunto a prevedere forme di accoglienza in precedenza eliminate dal decreto sicurezza del 2018) ovvero titolari della stessa. Nel primo caso sono previsti servizi di assistenza sanitaria, sociale e psicologica nonché di mediazione linguistico-culturale, nel secondo caso si aggiungono servizi di integrazione del soggetto, tra cui l‘orientamento al lavoro e la formazione professionale. Inoltre, il decreto ha reso potenziali beneficiari dei suddetti servizi anche i titolari di una serie di permessi di soggiorno speciali (protezione speciale, protezione sociale, violenza domestica, calamità, particolare sfruttamento lavorativo, atti di particolare valore civile, casi speciali).

      Il nuovo decreto ha dunque nuovamente inciso sul precedente impianto normativo in materia di immigrazione e asilo riformando e, per lo più, abrogando le modifiche introdotte dai cosiddetti “decreti sicurezza”, pur mantenendone alcuni profili criticabili. I tempi di attesa per l’ottenimento della cittadinanza sopra evidenziati, così come il mantenimento della criminalizzazione del soccorso marittimo sono tra questi. In ogni caso, il contenuto può ritenersi complessivamente soddisfacente e il decreto è indubbiamente un passo verso l’apertura e un trattamento della politica migratoria quale evento strutturale e non meramente emergenziale.

      https://www.unionedirittiumani.it/in-vigore-il-nuovo-decreto-in-materia-di-immigrazione-d-l-n-130-d

  • A l’horizon des migrations

    Bienvenue dans cette nouvelle édition de "Nos géographies". Dès demain, vendredi 2 octobre, et jusqu’à dimanche, la géographie tient son Festival international à Saint-Dié-des-Vosges. France Culture en parle avec nos deux invités, #François_Gemenne et #Lucie_Bacon, qui discuteront migrations.

    Une édition certes un peu différente des précédentes éditions, sans doute dans sa forme, mais tout aussi riche et variée autour d’un thème fort, les climats. Nous vous avons proposé la semaine dernière, les regards croisés de géographes sur l’épidémie de Covid-19, tels qu’ils ont été rassemblés et seront présentés dans ces journées. Ce soir, nous partons à l’horizon des migrations. Nos deux invités, François Gemenne et Lucie Bacon, par des voies différentes et à bonne distance des discours politiques si souvent réducteurs, explorent la diversité des parcours de migrants en prêtant attention à leur complexité. Pour l’un, à la transformation des frontières sous l’effet de la mondialisation et du changement climatique, pour l’autre, aux stratégies mises en place par les femmes et les hommes engagés sur une route semée d’obstacles, en rappelant aussi des vérités parfaitement vérifiables et pourtant obstinément inaudibles.

    Lucie Bacon, doctorante en géographie Laboratoire Migrinter (CNRS), Poitiers et Laboratoire Telemme, université Aix-Marseille. Elle achève une thèse : « La fabrique du parcours migratoire : la « route des Balkans » au prisme de la parole des migrants », un travail de terrain au plus près des intéressés.

    François Gemenne, spécialiste des questions de géopolitique de l’environnement, invité à Saint-Dié pour présenter son dernier livre au titre explicite : On a tous un ami noir. Pour en finir avec les polémiques stériles sur les migrations, (Fayard, 2020). Il a été directeur exécutif du programme de recherche interdisciplinaire « Politiques de la Terre » à Sciences Po (Médialab), et est par ailleurs chercheur qualifié du FNRS à l’Université de Liège (CEDEM).

    https://www.franceculture.fr/emissions/nos-geographies/a-lhorizon-des-migrations

    A partir de la minute 44’24 François Gemenne parle de #réfugiés_climatiques / #réfugiés_environnementaux

    #paradigme_de_l'immobilité #asile #migrations #réfugiés #frontières #im/mobilité #mobilité #idées_reçues #préjugés #frontières_ouvertes #fermeture_des_frontières #ouverture_des_frontières

    • On a tous un ami noir ; pour en finir avec les polémiques stériles sur les migrations

      Sans angélisme ni dogmatisme, ce livre apaisera le débat public sur le sujet de l’immigration, en l’éclairant de réflexions inédites : celles issues d’expériences étrangères, celles produites par la recherche et celles de l’auteur enfin, spécialiste de ces questions et lui-même étranger vivant en France depuis plus de douze ans. Pas une semaine ne s’écoule sans qu’éclate une nouvelle polémique sur les migrations : violences policières, voile dans l’espace public, discriminations, quotas, frontières... Les débats sur ces sujets sont devenus tendus, polarisés et passionnels, tandis que la parole raciste s’est libérée, relayée avec force par des activistes identitaires. Collectivement, on a accepté de penser les migrations à partir des questions posées par l’extrême-droite, en utilisant même son vocabulaire. Quant à nous, chercheurs, nous nous sommes souvent retrouvés réduits à devoir débusquer rumeurs et mensonges, qu’il s’agisse de dénoncer le mythe de l’appel d’air ou du grand remplacement. Nos sociétés resteront malades de ces questions tant qu’elles continueront à les envisager sous l’unique prisme des idéologies. C’est toute l’ambition de ce livre : montrer qu’il est possible de penser ces sujets de manière rationnelle et apaisée, en les éclairant de réflexions et de faits qui sont bien trop souvent absents des débats. En montrant, par exemple, que les passeurs sont les premiers bénéficiaires de la fermeture des frontières. Ou que la migration représente un investissement considérable pour ceux qui partent, alors qu’ils se retrouvent souvent décrits comme la « misère du monde ». Les questions d’identité collective doivent être des enjeux qui nous rassemblent, plutôt que des clivages qui nous opposent. À condition de reconnaître et d’affronter les problèmes structurels de racisme dans nos sociétés. Après tout, on a tous un ami noir.

      https://www.librairie-sciencespo.fr/livre/9782213712772-on-a-tous-un-ami-noir-pour-en-finir-avec-les-pole

      #livre #On_a_tous_un_ami_noir

    • Migrants : ouvrir les frontières, quelle idée ! Et pourtant...

      François Gemenne, enseignant et chercheur sur les politiques du climat et des migrations, vient de publier « On a tous un ami noir », chez Fayard. Un ouvrage en forme d’outil pour répondre aux idées trop vite convenues, dans le débat sur les migrations. Une manière depuis longtemps oubliée de penser cette épineuse question de société.

      https://www.lavoixdunord.fr/891788/article/2020-11-11/migrations-ouvrir-les-frontieres-quelle-idee

  • The Next Great Migration. The Beauty and Terror of Life on the Move

    The news today is full of stories of dislocated people on the move. Wild species, too, are escaping warming seas and desiccated lands, creeping, swimming, and flying in a mass exodus from their past habitats. News media presents this scrambling of the planet’s migration patterns as unprecedented, provoking fears of the spread of disease and conflict and waves of anxiety across the Western world. On both sides of the Atlantic, experts issue alarmed predictions of millions of invading aliens, unstoppable as an advancing tsunami, and countries respond by electing anti-immigration leaders who slam closed borders that were historically porous.

    But the science and history of migration in animals, plants, and humans tell a different story. Far from being a disruptive behavior to be quelled at any cost, migration is an ancient and lifesaving response to environmental change, a biological imperative as necessary as breathing. Climate changes triggered the first human migrations out of Africa. Falling sea levels allowed our passage across the Bering Sea. Unhampered by barbed wire, migration allowed our ancestors to people the planet, catapulting us into the highest reaches of the Himalayan mountains and the most remote islands of the Pacific, creating and disseminating the biological, cultural, and social diversity that ecosystems and societies depend upon. In other words, migration is not the crisis—it is the solution.

    Conclusively tracking the history of misinformation from the 18th century through today’s anti-immigration policies, The Next Great Migration makes the case for a future in which migration is not a source of fear, but of hope.

    https://www.bloomsbury.com/us/the-next-great-migration-9781635571998
    #adaptation #asile #migrations #réfugiés #mobilité #solution #problème #résilience #livre #changement_climatique #climat #réfugiés_environnementaux #migrations_environnementales #histoire #survie #crise #histoire_des_migrations

    ping @isskein @karine4 @_kg_ @reka

    • Climate migration is not a problem. It’s a solution.

      Climate migration is often associated with crisis and catastrophe, but #Sonia_Shah, author of “The Next Great Migration,” wants us to think differently about migration. On The World’s weekly look at climate change solutions, The Big Fix, Shah speaks to host Marco Werman about her reporting that considers how the world would be more resilient if people were given legal safe ways to move.

      https://www.pri.org/file/2020-08-21/climate-migration-not-problem-it-s-solution

      –—

      Sonia Shah parle aussi de #musique métissée, dont celle de #Mulatu_Astatke, qui n’aurait pas pu voir le jour sans la migrations de populations au cours de l’histoire :


      https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mulatu_Astatke

      #immobilité #fermeture_des_frontières

    • Migration as Bio-Resilience : On Sonia Shah’s “The Next Great Migration”

      DURING THE UNUSUALLY frigid winter of 1949, a breeding pair of gray wolves crossed a frozen-over channel onto Michigan’s Isle Royale, a narrow spit of land just south of the US-Canadian maritime border in Lake Superior. Finding abundant prey, including moose, the pair had pups, starting a small lupine clan. Over the next almost 50 years, without access to the mainland, the clan grew increasingly inbred, with over half the wolves developing congenital spinal deformities and serious eye problems. As the wolf population declined — scientists even found one mother dead in her den, with seven unborn pups in her — the moose population came thundering back, gobbling up and trampling the forest’s buds and shoots. The ecosystem’s food chain now had a few broken links.

      The Isle Royale wolf population was saved, however, by a lone migrant. In 1997, a male wolf made his way to the island. Within a generation — wolf generations are a little less than five years — 56 percent of the young wolves carried the newcomer’s genes. In the years since, thanks to ongoing conservation efforts, more wolves have been brought to the island to provide enough genetic diversity not only to save the wolves but preserve the ecosystem’s new balance.

      This is just one of many examples of the bio-benefits of migratory species provided by Sonia Shah in her new book, The Next Great Migration. Hers is an original take on the oft-stultifying debate about immigration, most frequently argued over by unbending stalwarts on opposite extremes, or sometimes quibbled over by noncommittal centrists. There are now more displaced humans than ever — around one percent of the total human population — and the climate crises together with humanity’s ceaseless creep are driving an increasing number of nonhuman species to search for more welcoming climes. That half of the story is popularly understood: the world is on the move. What is less often acknowledged, and what Shah convincingly fills out, is its biological necessity. “Migration’s ecological function extends beyond the survival of the migrant itself,” she writes. “Wild migrants build the botanical scaffolding of entire ecosystems.” Besides spreading pollen and seeds — upon which the survival of many plants depend — migrants also transport genes, thus bringing genetic diversity. Migration is not only a human fact but a biological one.

      But the understanding of migration’s critical import — whether broadly biological or specifically human — has been a long time coming.

      “The idea that certain people and species belong in certain fixed places has had a long history in Western culture,” Shah writes. By its logic, “migration is by necessity a catastrophe, because it violates the natural order.” The so-called “natural order” is actually a construct that has been buoyed for millennia by a broad coalition of scientists, politicians, and other ideologically inflected cavillers. As for the word “migrant,” it didn’t even appear in the English language until the 17th century — when it was coined by Thomas Browne — and it took another hundred years before it was applied to humans. One important migrant-denialist, as Shah details, was Swedish-born naturalist Carl Linnaeus, most famous for formalizing binomial nomenclature, the modern system of classifying organisms as, say, Canis lupus or Homo sapiens.

      Shah goes beyond Linnaeus’s contribution to taxonomy — which, notably, is itself subject to critique, as when essayist Anne Fadiman describes it as a “form of mental colonising and empire-building” — to illuminate his blinkered fealty to the dominant narratives of the day. More than just falling in line, he worked to cement the alleged differences between human populations — crudely exaggerating, for instance, features of “red,” “yellow,” “black,” or “white” skinned people. He sparred with competing theorists who were beginning to propose then-revolutionary ideas — for instance, that all humans originated in and migrated out of Africa. With the concept of the “Great Chain of Being,” he toadied to the reigning theological explanation for the world being as it was; this concept hierarchically categorized, in ascending order, matter, plants, animals, peasants, clergy, noblemen, kings, and, finally, God. To support his views, Linnaeus took a trip to northern Sweden where he “studied” the indigenous Sami people, all the while complaining of the climate and the locals not speaking Swedish. Robbing them of a few native costumes, he then freely fabricated stories about their culture and origins. He later tried to give credence to biological differences between Africans and Europeans by committing to the bizarre fantasy that black women had elongated labia minora, to which he referred using the Latin term sinus pudoris. The cultural backdrop to his explanations and speculations was the generally held view that migration was an anomaly, and that people and animals lived where they belonged and belonged where they lived — and always had.

      Ignorance — deliberate, political, or simply true and profound — of the realities of even animal migration went so far as pushing scientists to hatch myriad far-fetched theories to explain, for example, where migratory birds went in the winter. Leading naturalists at the time explained some birds’ seasonal disappearance by claiming that they hibernated in lakes — a theory first proposed by Aristotle — or hid in remote caves. Driving such assumptions was, in part, the idea of a stable and God-created “harmony of nature.” When some thinkers began to question such fixed stability, Linneaus doubled down, insisting that animals inhabited their specific climes, and remained there. The implication for humans was not only that they had not migrated from Africa, but that Africans — as well as Asians and Native Americans — were biologically distinct. This kind of racial essentialism was an important structural component of what would morph into race science or eugenics. Linnaeus divided Homo sapiens into Homo sapiens europaeus (white, serious, strong), Homo sapiens asiaticus (yellow, melancholy, greedy), Homo sapiens americanus (red, ill-tempered, subjugated), and Homo sapiens afer (black, impassive, lazy), as well as Homo caudatus (inhabitants of the Antarctic globe), and even Homo monstrosus (pygmies and Patagonian giants).

      “Scientific ideas that cast migration as a form of disorder were not obscure theoretical concerns confined to esoteric academic journals,” but, Shah writes, “theoretical ballast for today’s generation of anti-immigration lobbyists and policy makers.”

      Here Shah dredges up more vile fantasies, like that of the “Malphigian layer” in the late 17th century, which claimed that Africans had an extra layer of skin consisting of “a thick, fatty black liquid of unknown provenance.” While the Malphigian layer has been roundly dismissed, such invented differences between peoples continue to bedevil medical treatment: even today, black people are presumed to be able to tolerate more pain, and so it’s perhaps hardly surprising that more black women die in childbirth.

      The idea was “that people who lived on different continents were biologically foreign to one another, a claim that would fuel centuries of xenophobia and generations of racial violence.” Or, put more simply, Linnaeus and other believed: “We belong here. They belong there.”

      ¤

      “The classifications of species as either ‘native’ or ‘alien’ is one of the organizing principles of conservation,” Shah writes, quoting a 2007 scientific study in Progress in Human Geography. The implications of that dichotomous classification are harmful to humans and nonhumans alike, setting the stage for xenophobia and white anthropomorphism. As a case in point, the son of author and conservationist Aldo Leopold recommended in 1963, that US national parks “preserve, or where necessary […] recreate the ecologic scene as viewed by the first European visitors.” The idea of a pristine, pre-colonial era presumes an ahistorical falsehood: that humans and others left no trace, or that those traces could be undone and the ecologic scene returned to a static Eden. While many indigenous cultures certainly live less disruptively within their environment, in the case of both the Americas and Australia for example, the arrival of the first Homo sapiens heralded the swift extinction of scores of native species — in the Americas, woolly mammoths, giant sloths, saber-toothed tigers, camelops, and the dire wolf. Yet the pull toward preservation persists.

      In 1999, Bill Clinton established the National Invasive Species Council, which was tasked with repelling “alien species.” This move was an outgrowth of the relatively recently created disciplines of conservation biology, restoration biology, and even invasion biology. I recall being a boy in northern Ohio and hearing of the horror and devastation promised by the zebra mussel’s inexorable encroachment into the ecosystems of the Great Lakes. One invasion biologist, writes Shah, “calculated that wild species moving freely across the planet would ravage large swaths of ecosystems. The number of land animals would drop by 65 percent, land birds by 47 percent, butterflies by 35 percent, and ocean life by 58 percent.” And while the globe is certainly losing species to extinction, blaming mobility or migration is missing the mark, and buoying up the old “myth of a sedentary planet,” as she puts it.

      For millennia, humans had hardly any idea of how some species could spread. They had neither the perspective nor technology to understand that creepy-crawlies have creeped and crawled vast distances and always been on the move, which is not, in the big picture, a bad thing. Zebra mussels, for example, were not the only, or even the greatest, threat to native clams in the Great Lakes. Besides disrupting the local ecosystems, they also contributed to those ecosystems by filtering water and becoming a new source of food for native fish and fowl. Shah notes that Canadian ecologist Mark Vellend has found that “wild newcomers generally increase species richness on a local and regional level.” Since the introduction of European species to the Americas 400 years ago, biodiversity has actually increased by 18 percent. In other words, Shah writes, “nature transgresses borders all the time.”

      In her last chapter, “The Wall,” she tackles the immunological implications of migration. While first acknowledging that certain dangers do uncontrovertibly exist, such as Europeans bringing smallpox to the Americas, or Rome spreading malaria to the outer regions of its empire, she metaphorizes xenophobia as a fever dream. To be sure, wariness of foreign pathogens may make sense, but to guide foreign policy on such grounds or let wariness morph into discrimination or violent backlash becomes, like a fever that climbs beyond what the host organism needs, “a self-destructive reaction, leading to seizures, delirium, and collapse.” It’s like a cytokine storm in the COVID-19 era. As Shah told me, “the reflexive solution to contagion — border closures, isolation, immobility — is in fact antithetical to biological resilience on a changing planet.”

      ¤

      In 2017, a solo Mexican wolf loped through the Chihuahuan Desert, heading north, following a path that other wolves, as well as humans, have traveled for thousands of years. Scientists were especially interested in this lone wolf, known as M1425, because he represented a waning population of endangered Mexican wolves dispersing genes from a tiny population in Mexico to a slightly more robust population in the United States.

      Like the Isle Royale wolves, “[i]f the two wild populations of Mexican gray wolves can find and mate with each other, the exchange of genetic material could boost recovery efforts for both populations,” a New Mexico magazine reported. But the area where M1425 crossed the international boundary is now closed off by a border wall, and the Center for Biological Diversity counts 93 species directly threatened by the proposed expansion of the wall. This is what we should be worried about.

      https://lareviewofbooks.org/article/migration-as-bio-resilience-on-sonia-shahs-the-next-great-migration
      #bio-résilience #résilience

      signalé par @isskein

  • Where Will Everyone Go ?

    ProPublica and The New York Times Magazine, with support from the Pulitzer Center, have for the first time modeled how climate refugees might move across international borders. This is what we found.

    #climate #climate_refugee #migration #international_migration #map

    ping @cdb_77

    https://features.propublica.org/climate-migration/model-how-climate-refugees-move-across-continents

  • Migrazioni climatiche (prima parte)

    Un’analisi dei flussi migratori causati dai cambiamenti climatici, che superano quelli dovuti agli eventi bellici. Le normative sovranazionali non hanno ancora recepito il problema che pertanto genera clandestinità.
    Il genere umano, sin dall’epoca preistorica, è sempre stato interessato da spostamenti, su scala più o meno ampia, generati da una vasta gamma di motivazioni, fra le quali principalmente: la ricerca di nuove terre, l’aspirazione verso migliori condizioni di vita, l’espansione coloniale, la fuga da guerre, persecuzioni e discriminazioni varie ed anche da fenomeni naturali avversi quali catastrofi e cambiamenti climatici. Numerosi sono i casi storici di movimenti di interi popoli o di parte di essi sospinti da fenomeni naturali, in quanto le migrazioni hanno da sempre rappresentato una fondamentale strategia di adattamento ai mutamenti climatico-ambientali. Nonostante ciò, l’élite politica mondiale e i media internazionali non hanno, sino a pochi anni fa, prestato particolare attenzione a questo fenomeno. La comunità scientifica mondiale, invece, dalla fine del scorso secolo ha mostrato crescente interesse sia verso lo studio dei cambiamenti climatici che delle sue conseguenze, come l’impatto sui flussi migratori.

    Le problematiche metodologiche

    L’analisi del fenomeno ha tuttavia evidenziato criticità di carattere metodologico a seguito della sua complessità e della sua eterogeneità, pertanto, nonostante le pubblicazioni accademiche abbiano registrato un sensibile incremento nell’ultimo ventennio (Amato 2019 [1]), la sua conoscenza risulta ancora frammentaria e non del tutto esaustiva. Le difficoltà di indagine riguardano aspetti di diversa natura legati, in primis, alla peculiarità del fenomeno migratorio che si può manifestare in ampia gamma di variabili riconducibili alla durata, temporanea o definitiva, alle cause, volontarie o forzate, e al raggio di spostamento, interne, internazionali o intercontinentali.

    Per quanto riguarda il rapporto tra fenomeni naturali e migrazioni, che in questo contesto ci proponiamo di indagare, i primi possono essere distinti, in base alla dinamica temporale in cui si manifestano, in eventi a «insorgenza lenta» come i cambiamenti climatico-ambientali (riscaldamento globale, desertificazione, innalzamento del livello dei mari, erosione dei suoli ecc.) e ad «insorgenza rapida» come uragani, tempeste, bombe d’acqua e inondazioni oltre alle calamità naturali (terremoti, tsunami ed eruzioni vulcaniche). La diversa natura e tipologia di fenomeno scatenante genera inevitabili riflessi sulle caratteristiche dei flussi migratori, infatti mentre i fenomeni ad «insorgenza lenta» spesso generano migrazioni volontarie mosse da motivi economici, le risposte ad eventi ad «insorgenza rapida» risultano invece prevalentemente involontarie e di breve durata.

    Nell’intento di effettuare una classificazione delle migrazioni riconducibili a soli fattori climatici e ambientali, escludendo quindi i fenomeni geofisici come terremoti e tsunami, una corrente di studiosi ha identificato 4 tipologie distinte, equamente ripartite fra processi progressivi ed eventi improvvisi: 1) perdita di territorio dovuto a innalzamento del livello del mare, 2) siccità e desertificazione, 3) disastri naturali come alluvioni, cicloni e tempeste e 4) conflitti per le scarse risorse che possono portare a tensioni e violenze.

    Opera abbastanza complessa si presenta quindi la l’individuazione, la quantificazione e la classificazione degli spostamenti generati da fenomeni naturali che, nella sostanza a causa della comune origine involontaria, vanno ad aggiungersi alle altre tipologie di migrazioni forzate, riconducibili a guerre, conflitti, persecuzioni personali e calamità naturali. Nonostante il riscaldamento globale, la cui origine antropica sia ormai ampiamente comprovata dalla comunità scientifica mondiale, e i conseguenti cambiamenti climatico-ambientali (siccità, desertificazione, piogge intense, inondazioni, innalzamento del livello dei mari ecc) siano alla base di un numero crescente di spostamenti di persone in tutte le aree del pianeta (Amato, 2019), è opportuno evidenziare come alle migrazioni climatiche non sia stata ancora attribuita una precisa definizione, sia in campo semantico che in quello giuridico.

    Elementi di criticità ad oggi restano oltre all’identificazione del fenomeno, anche la sua estensione territoriale, le cause e la terminologia da utilizzare per identificarlo. I soggetti interessati dal fenomeno vengono definiti indistintamente come: profughi ambientali, migranti ambientali, profughi climatici, rifugiati climatici o rifugiati ambientali. Quest’ultimo termine, che risulta il più utilizzato, non viene però adottato dalle Nazioni Unite in quanto lo status di rifugiato viene riconosciuto dal diritto internazionale (Convenzione di Ginevra sullo statuto dei rifugiati del 1951) ai perseguitati per motivi razziali, religiosi, politici e a chi in fuga da guerre ma non per cause climatiche o ambientali (Amato, 2019). Un vulnus nell’architettura normativa sovranazionale che rappresenta elemento di discriminazione e che necessita di essere colmato, appurato il consistente numero di persone costrette ad abbandonare le proprie case a seguito di fenomeni naturali avversi.

    Sullo sfondo dell’ambito metodologico, si staglia, in veste di problematica principale, la determinazione della causa che, sia nel caso di spostamenti interni che internazionali, si presenta non di rado in forma non univoca. Frequentemente sussistono infatti molteplici cause, spesso interagenti fra loro, riconducibili a fattori di natura sociale, economica, demografica, politica, bellica e ambientale che rendono difficile ricondurne l’origine ad una in particolare. Ad esempio risulta problematico identificare l’origine della migrazione, fra economica e climatica, nel caso in cui il surriscaldamento globale, comportando una riduzione delle rese agricole, spinge i piccoli produttori nella povertà estrema costringendoli ad abbandonare le proprie terre.

    L’origine del termine «migranti climatici» venne coniato nel 1976 dall’ambientalista statunitense Lester Brown, tuttavia, il «padre» della corrente di pensiero viene considerato l’ambientalista inglese, professore ad Oxford, Norman Myers il quale già alla metà degli anni ’90 affermava che a livello mondiale erano presenti circa 25 milioni di “rifugiati climatici” prevedendo che nel 2050 avrebbero raggiunto quota 200 milioni. L’espressione “rifugiato ambientale”, invece, venne utilizzato per la prima volta in un report delle Nazioni Unite del 1985 e, successivamente, inserita nel 1997 nel Glossario di Statistiche Ambientali in riferimento a “una persona sfollata per cause ambientali, in particolare degrado ambientale”.

    Tutt’oggi non è stata ancora trovata né una definizione condivisa, né il suo inquadramento giuridico a causa dell’inerzia politica, in quanto un accordo a livello intergovernativo che modifichi il diritto internazionale introducendo il riconoscimento dello status di «rifugiato ambientale o climatico», con il conseguente obbligo di non respingimento degli stessi alle frontiere, amplierebbe la platea delle persone da accogliere, aumentando le problematiche sociali e logistiche ed i costi per gli stati di arrivo. Pertanto, l’immobilismo della leadership politica internazionale, che peraltro non tiene in considerazione l’aggravarsi degli effetti della crisi climatico-ambientale sulle condizioni di vita delle persone, si concretizza nel fatto che i soggetti coinvolti, non avendo riconosciuto il loro status dal punto di vista giuridico e adeguata protezione internazionale, finiscono per ingrossare le file dell’immigrazione irregolare internazionale.

    Una panoramica globale

    Le emissioni antropogeniche di gas climalteranti, che già alla fine del 2018 avevano fatto salire la concentrazione di CO2 nell’atmosfera a 410 ppm (parti per milione), con aumento di circa 100 punti solo negli ultimi 60 anni (grafico 1), rappresentano la causa principale dell’aumento della temperatura media globale che, rispetto al periodo pre industriale, è aumentata di 1,1° con un’impennata nel quinquennio 2014-2019 di ben 0,2° a conferma dell’aggravamento del trend in atto.

    Il fenomeno, tuttavia, evidenzia elementi di complessità e di difformità geografica accertato che il riscaldamento globale, da un lato, non si presenta in forma omogenea nell’atmosfera terrestre, vista ad esempio la maggior intensità registrata alle alte latitudini (carta 1), dall’altro, innesca un ampio spettro di mutamenti climatici dai connotati locali talvolta molto diversi, che stanno assumendo negli ultimi anni frequenza e intensità crescenti, con inevitabili riflessi sulle condizioni di vita delle popolazioni.

    Dal rapporto pubblicato nel 2017 dal Carbon Disclosure Project emerge come le maggiori responsabilità del fenomeno siano riconducibili alle principali 100 società mondiali, sia pubbliche che private, del settore energetico, le quali tra il 1988 e il 2015 avrebbero rilasciato oltre il 70% delle emissioni globali e che anche a livello dei singoli paesi risultano gravi squilibri visto che solo Cina, Ue e Usa provocano oltre la metà del totale delle emissioni. Fuoriesce un quadro abbastanza nitido rispetto alle responsabilità che non sono attribuibili all’umanità in toto bensì a determinati stati, alle grandi imprese ed ai gruppi finanziari che vi investono.

    Le difficoltà metodologiche precedentemente rilevate rendono problematico da quantificare un fenomeno che, come visto, risulta complesso, spesso multicausale [2] e, soprattutto, riguardante soggetti il cui status non è stato ancora precisamente definito e tanto meno tutelato dal diritto internazionale. In considerazione di ciò, lo studio del fenomeno presenta un certo grado di complessità e di difficoltà oggettive in quanto, nonostante la lunga ricerca, non è risultato possibile attingere dati da fonti ufficiali circa l’entità del fenomeno globale, composto sia dalle migrazioni internazionali che da quelle interne: per le prime sono state diffuse solo stime, mentre per le seconde l’istituto più autorevole impegnato a monitorare, l’Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre (Centro di monitoraggio degli spostamenti interni), è attivo solamente dal 2008.

    Un arco di tempo non lungo ma sufficiente a comprenderne le dimensioni e le tendenze visto che, in base a questa fonte, solo le persone costrette a spostarsi all’interno dello stesso paese (internally displaced persons) a causa di fenomeni climatico-ambientali fra il 2008 e il 2014 sono risultate oltre 150 milioni, un numero superiore rispetto a quello causato da guerre e conflitti e addirittura, nello stesso periodo, oltre 170 milioni secondo i dati dell’Unione Europea (tabella 1).

    In base a recenti pubblicazioni sul tema emerge come gli effetti dei cambiamenti climatici e dei fenomeni estremi inneschino prevalentemente mobilità forzate interne invece che internazionali, ciò a seguito sia della scelta prioritaria di non spostarsi al di fuori del proprio paese, dove le condizioni di vita diventano più difficili, sia per l’impossibilità delle persone in stato di fragilità estrema a muoversi (trapped population) (Amato, 2019). Nell’ambito di questa analisi, risulta utile supporto uno studio [3] che ha indagato il rapporto tra l’aumento della temperatura globale e la migrazione internazionale prendendo in esame 116 paesi, suddivisi fra paesi a basso e a medio reddito, nel periodo compreso fra il 1960 e il 2000.

    L’indagine parte dall’ipotesi che nel lungo termine il riscaldamento atmosferico impoverendo le popolazioni rurali e peggiorando le loro condizioni di vita, influenzi la migrazione, ma con modalità diverse a seconda del reddito delle popolazioni. I risultati delle analisi confermano questa ipotesi: da un lato l’aumento graduale della temperatura contribuisce ad un aumento dei flussi migratori dai paesi a medio reddito. Al contrario, lo stesso fenomeno contribuisce a ridurre l’emigrazione da paesi più poveri. Questo risultato mette in luce l’esistenza di una relazione di costo-opportunità fra gli alti incentivi a migrare e le risorse per farlo. L’aumento della temperatura, infatti, provocando un calo della produttività agricola, genera un maggiore spinta migratoria. Pur rappresentando un significativo input, questo calo del reddito riduce la possibilità di emigrare da paesi meno sviluppati, dove un’elevata percentuale di persone vivono con un misero reddito addirittura sotto la soglia di povertà estrema di 1,90 $ al giorno, in particolare in Africa Sub-Sahariana dove nel 2015 in tale condizione si trovava ancora il 41.2% della popolazione totale [4]. Il riscaldamento globale tende quindi ad intrappolare le popolazioni povere nei loro territori di appartenenza a causa dell’elevato costo degli spostamenti internazionali che i potenziali migranti hanno raramente capacità di finanziare.

    Un secondo importante risultato emerso dall’analisi è che i flussi migratori da paesi a medio reddito causati dell’aumento della temperatura, sono principalmente diretti verso destinazioni limitrofe, in genere nel raggio di 1.000 km, come ci confermano i dati dell’Unhcr [5].

    Procedendo quindi all’analisi degli unici dati attendibili e completi, vale a dire quelli relativi agli sfollati o ai dislocamenti interni, secondo il Global Report on Internal Displacement (2019) pubblicati dall’Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre (IDMC), i nuovi spostamenti interni a livello globale a fine 2018 (tabella 2) raggiungevano i 28 milioni di unità che interessavano 148 paesi dei quali, 17,2 milioni a causa di calamità naturali e 10,8 per conflitti. Le migrazioni interne sono dunque per il 61% legate a eventi naturali e di queste la stragrande maggioranza è rappresentata da persone costrette a fuggire da eventi climatici estremi: 16,1 milioni per alluvioni, cicloni e tempeste, mentre solamente 1,1 milioni riconducibili a fenomeni geofisici, principalmente terremoti [6].

    Il rapporto indica che il totale mondiale degli sfollati interni, a causa sia di fenomeni naturali che di violenze, aveva raggiunto a fine 2018, i 41,3 milioni di persone, la cifra più elevata mai registrata secondo la direttrice dell’IDMC Alexandra Bilac. Un fenomeno che appare fortemente concentrato in specifiche aree, appurato che 3/4, ovvero 30,9 milioni di persone, si trovano in soli dieci paesi, principalmente Siria (6,2), Colombia (5,8), Repubblica Democratica del Congo (3,1), Somalia (2,6) e Afghanistan (2,6) che da sole ne ospitano quasi la metà.

    Premettendo che di anno in anno il quadro mondiale degli sfollati interni appare in sensibile mutamento a causa sia dell’improvvisa esplosione di conflitti che dall’imprevedibilità temporale e geografica dei fenomeni climatici, dall’analisi dei dati macroregionali disaggregati, in base alle cause dei nuovi ricollocati interni del solo 2018, suddivisi fra eventi naturali e conflitti, fuoriesce un quadro eterogeneo (tabella 3): mentre i primi superano i secondi in Asia orientale e Pacifico (9,3 milioni contro 236.000), Asia meridionale (3,3 milioni contro 544.000), Americhe (1,7 milioni contro 404.000), Europa e Asia centrale (41.000 contro 12.000), in Africa Sub-sahariana (2,6 e 7,4 milioni) e nell’area Medio Oriente e Nord-Africa (214.000 contro 2,1 milioni), a causa dell’elevato numero di guerre e scontri armati, la situazione era invertita.

    L’intensificarsi dei fenomeni meteorologici estremi, come visto, ha determinato la maggior parte dei nuovi spostamenti innescando, nel 2018, 17,2 milioni di nuovi ricollocamenti su 28 milioni; dislocamenti interni che geograficamente hanno interessato, soprattutto, l’Asia meridionale e orientale, accertato che Filippine (3,8), Cina (3,8) e India (2,7) hanno assorbito circa il 60% del totale di nuovi sfollati, principalmente sotto forma di evacuazioni. Al quarto posto seguono gli Stati Uniti, unico paese ad economia avanzata fra i primi 10, con 1,2 milioni di sfollati confermando da un lato che i fenomeni naturali estremi colpiscono soprattutto le zone tropicali asiatiche e il Sud del mondo in generale, dall’altro che i paesi sviluppati, anche che se localizzati prevalentemente nella fascia temperata, non ne sono di certo al riparo.

    https://www.lacittafutura.it/esteri/migrazioni-climatiche-prima-parte

    #migrations #asile #réfugiés #réfugiés_environnementaux #réfugiés_climatiques #chiffres #statistiques #flux_migratoires

    ping @reka

    • Migrazioni climatiche (seconda parte)

      Le conseguenze dei cambiamenti climatici verranno pagate di più da chi ne ha meno responsabilità. Giustizia ambientale e giustizia climatica sono inscindibili.

      Le preoccupanti proiezioni future

      Appurata l’aggravarsi della crisi climatico-ambientale con i suoi riflessi sempre più rilevanti sulle condizioni di vita delle persone, il mondo scientifico, le istituzioni e le organizzazioni nazionali e internazionali vi stanno focalizzando in maniera crescente la loro attenzione con studi, dossier e convegni nel tentativo di indurre la leadership politica mondiale ad implementare efficaci strategie di contenimento del riscaldamento globale. Fra i vari, anche il rapporto dell’Ipcc [1], gruppo intergovernativo sul cambiamento climatico delle Nazioni Unite dell’8 agosto 2019, “Cambiamento climatico e territorio”, conferma che a seguito di fenomeni naturali sempre più frequenti e intensi aumenteranno sia la fame che le migrazioni. Le zone più vulnerabili saranno quelle tropicali e subtropicali: si prevede che in Asia e Africa si registri ad esempio il maggior numero di persone colpite dalla desertificazioni. Nell’area del Mediterraneo, come anche in Nord e Sud America, nell’Africa meridionale e nell’Asia centrale osserveremo invece un preoccupante aumento degli incendi. Conseguentemente, conclude il rapporto, il fenomeno delle migrazioni subirà gli effetti dei cambiamenti climatici, sia all’interno dei Paesi che fra paesi diversi, presagendo un inevitabile incremento degli spostamenti oltre frontiera.

      Della crescente rilevanza e gravità del fenomeno delle migrazioni ambientali sembra che stiano prendendo atto anche gli Stati che hanno iniziato, seppur recentemente, a discutere di inserire nelle politiche migratorie anche la sfera climatica e ambientale. In questa direzione deve essere interpretata la «Dichiarazione di New York su rifugiati e migranti», adottata il 19 settembre 2016 nell’ambito della 71°’Assemblea Generale delle Nazioni Unite, che ha formalmente riconosciuto l’impatto dei cambiamenti climatici e ambientali quali fattori significativi nelle migrazioni forzate.

      Un fenomeno destinato in futuro ad assumere maggiore consistenza, sia nella sua dimensione interna che internazionale, come denunciato anche dal rapporto emesso 19 marzo 2018 dalla Banca Mondiale, in base al quale entro il 2050, fino a 143 milioni di persone che attualmente vivono nei paesi dell’Africa Sub-sahariana (86 milioni), dell’Asia meridionale (40 milioni) e dell’America Latina (17 milioni), potrebbero infatti essere costrette a muoversi all’interno dei propri paesi, fuggendo dalle aree meno vitali con minore disponibilità idrica e produttività delle colture, o da zone che saranno colpite dall’innalzamento del livello del mare e dalle mareggiate, creando inevitabili problemi di gestione del fenomeno a governi già afflitti da rilevanti difficoltà economiche e sociali. Preoccupante scenario che, a grandi linee, ricalca quello previsto da Norman Myers negli anni ’90.

      Il razzismo ambientale

      Gli effetti della crisi climatico-ambientale non si declinano esclusivamente attraverso l’alterazione e la distruzione degli ecosistemi naturali ma anche tramite gli aspetti economici e sociali dell’ingiustizia ambientale. Un gruppo di studiosi che ha indagato le correlazioni fra cambiamenti climatici erazzismo ambientale,fra i quali l’autorevole ambientalista statunitense William Ernest «Bill» McKibben [2], osservando che la crisi sta incidendo, e probabilmente continuerà ad incidere, su alcuni gruppi sociali maggiormente che su altri, sono arrivati a comprovare che gli effetti più gravosi vengono subiti da coloro che hanno minori responsabilità in termini di emissioni e di consumi. Secondo le loro ricerche la traiettoria della disuguaglianza sociale si sviluppa conseguentemente a quella del degrado ambientale, pertanto più lasciamo che l’emergenza climatica si aggravi, più le disparità sociali ed economiche si amplieranno. Ad analoghe conclusioni sono giunti anche gli scienziati dell’Ipcc, i quali, sempre nel rapporto “Cambiamento climatico e territorio” evidenziano la dimensione sociale dei cambiamenti climatici affermando che «gli impatti del cambiamento climatico saranno più severi non solo per i più poveri, ma anche per (…) gli anziani, i giovani, i più vulnerabili, gli indigeni e gli immigrati recenti».

      Tale dinamica discriminatoria ha alimentato sin degli anni ‘80 il movimento di giustizia ambientale, che si è concentrato su una sfera particolare del degrado ambientale: il razzismo ambientale, o eco razzismo (eco racism). Termine che sta ad indicare il meccanismo in base al quale le comunità socialmente marginalizzate hanno accessibilità limitata, se non addirittura alcuna, ad acqua, aria e terra non contaminata.
      Il razzismo ambientale benché agisca su due dimensioni distinte, quella sociale e quella territoriale, evidenzia correlazioni fra i due ambiti. Infatti, da un lato, le discariche e gli impianti inquinanti tendono ad essere costruiti nelle aree di comunità marginalizzate, popolate da famiglie a basso reddito e da minoranze sociali con elevati tassi di disoccupazione, come ad esempio in Italia gli impianti siderurgici di Bagnoli e Taranto. Negli Stati Uniti esiste, invece, una dinamica declinata in particolare su una discriminazione di tipo razziale. Uno studio ventennale, condotto da Robert Bullard, noto come il padre della giustizia ambientale americana, ha analizzato le caratteristiche razziali e socio-economiche delle comunità che vivono nelle vicinanze di discariche di rifiuti tossici concludendo che un numero sproporzionato di afroamericani risiede in aree con strutture per lo smaltimento di rifiuti chimici. D’altra parte, nelle aree più colpite dagli effetti del cambiamento climatico vi risiedono le comunità marginalizzate dove la povertà aggrava la loro vulnerabilità, come confermato anche dal rapporto «Tendenze minoritarie e indigene 2019» del Minority Rights Group che affronta gli effetti del cambiamento climatico su minoranze e popolazioni indigene e dal quale si evince che a causa dell’ancestrale rapporto con la terra e l’ambiente in cui vivono (addirittura definita Pachamama, Madre Terra, dalle comunità amerindie), queste risultano le comunità più vulnerabili in assoluto.

      La nuova frontiera dell’Apartheid climatico

      Al concetto di razzismo ambientale o eco razzismo, si sta recentemente affiancando quello più articolato di Apartheid climatico poiché alle crescenti disparità socio-economiche globali si sovrappone, acuendone gli effetti, la differente capacità di risposta delle comunità di fronte alle conseguenze del riscaldamento globale. Come abbiamo precedentemente rilevato, tutte le aree geografiche terrestri risultano interessate, seppur con intensità e forme diverse, dagli effetti del riscaldamento globale e dei cambiamenti climatici, ma ciò che differenzia i vari stati e gruppi sociali interni appare la capacità di risposta a tali fenomeni che, infatti, risulta proporzionale alle risorse a disposizione per difendersene e contrastarle. Mentre gli stati a basso reddito, i gruppi sociali marginali ed i popoli autoctoni ne subiscono i maggiori effetti in quanto privi di capacità di adattamento e di mitigazione – come visto anche la sola migrazione – viceversa, come afferma anche il rapporto presentato lunedì 24 giugno 2019 al Consiglio per i Diritti Umani dell’Onu da Philip Alston [3], solo i paesi più sviluppati «riusciranno ad operare gli aggiustamenti necessari ad affrontare temperature sempre più estreme». Lo studio in questione, che supporta le proprie affermazioni su dati oggettivi, afferma che i cambiamenti climatici rischiano di annullare i progressi conseguiti a livello globale negli ultimi 50 anni per lo sviluppo, la salute e la lotta alla fame. Tali mutamenti produrranno, entro il 2030, almeno 120 milioni di nuovi poveri, mentre «i benestanti potranno pagare per sfuggire al surriscaldamento, alla fame e ai conflitti, il resto del pianeta sarà lasciato a soffrire». A tal proposito è stato introdotto dalla comunità scientifica il concetto di vulnerabilità che l’Ipcc definisce come “la propensione o predisposizione ad essere affetti negativamente” dai cambiamenti climatici, e “la mancanza di capacità di far fronte e adattarsi” a tali cambiamenti. Alla vulnerabilità è contrapposta la resilienza, vale a dire “la capacità dei sistemi sociali, economici e ambientali di far fronte a un evento, tendenza o disturbo pericoloso”.

      L’entità dell’impatto degli eventi climatici estremi risulta sovente proporzionale alle condizioni economiche e sociali, delle comunità colpite che, se in condizioni di fragilità, subiscono un aumento della vulnerabilità e una riduzione della capacità di adattamento a situazioni in fase di mutamento. Frequentemente i cambiamenti climatici amplificano, infatti, condizioni preesistenti di vulnerabilità socio-economica fungendo da acceleratori della povertà e dell’ingiustizia sociale. Le persone malate e ferite, i bambini, i disabili, gli anziani, sono spesso tra i sopravvissuti più gravemente colpiti dagli eventi estremi, soprattutto nei paesi meno sviluppati. Sono infatti principalmente le comunità dei Sud del mondo a subire le conseguenze degli effetti del degrado ambientale e dei cambiamenti climatici, vittime da un lato di fenomeni a cui hanno scarsamente contribuito, e dall’altro anche di attività di sfruttamento di risorse o della costruzione di infrastrutture figlie di un modello di sviluppo imposto con poca attenzione ai fabbisogni delle popolazioni locali. In molti casi, soprattutto in società rurali del Sud del mondo, tale vulnerabilità è stata prodotta o amplificata da politiche neocoloniali o di “sviluppo” e globalizzazione capitalista che hanno ridotto la varietà di colture, ridotto la fertilità dei suoli, creato dipendenza economica dall’esportazione di pochi prodotti, indebolito le strutture sociali tradizionali di reciprocità e mutuo supporto a livello locale, così come la capacità degli stati di rispondere a situazioni di emergenza e provvedere a servizi sociali di base come infrastrutture sanitarie e mediche. (D. Andreucci e A. Orlandi 2019). [4]

      In sintesi, riconducendo l’analisi a scala globale, il Sud del mondo che è responsabile del solo 10% delle emissioni, si prevede che dovrà subirne il 75% delle ricadute negative, precipitando di fatto in una situazione di “apartheid ambientale”. La riduzione delle emissioni non risulta pertanto una questione prettamente di carattere ambientale ma una strategia funzionale al rispetto dei diritti umani e sociali, in quanto giustizia sociale e giustizia climatica sono concetti interdipendenti ed i movimenti che le sostengono non possono agire separatamente se aspirano ad ottenere risultati tangibili.

      Dall’Antropocene al Capitalocene

      Il concetto di Antropocene, proposto per la prima volta negli anni ’80 dal biologo Eugene Stroener, ha iniziato a diffondersi, travalicando i confini disciplinari ed accademici, ad opera del premio Nobel per la chimica, Paul Crutzen, per rimarcare l’intensità e la pervasività che l’attività umana aveva assunto nei confronti del processi biologici terrestri (Crutzen, 2005). In ambito ambientalista il concetto evidenza invece il passaggio di stato del nostro Pianeta causato dal manifestarsi su scala globale della crisi climatico-ambientale di origine antropogenica, assurta ad elemento caratterizzante di una nuova era geologica. Tale accezione del concetto di Antropocene risulta tuttavia avulsa da significative connotazioni storico-politiche poiché rapporta il cambiamento climatico all’azione umana, nel suo complesso, senza distinzioni.

      La pluricausalità alla base dei flussi migratori contemporanei riconduce invece a fattori economici e sociali, oltre che a quelli ambientali, chiamando in causa le relazioni fra il Nord e il Sud del mondo e i concetti di giustizia sociale e ambientale legati, come visto, alla vulnerabilità e all’accesso alle risorse e, dunque, alle classi sociali di appartenenza.

      Una corrente accademica di pensiero e alcuni contesti scientifici sostengono che la crisi climatico-ambientale in atto sia il frutto del sistema economico dominante a livello mondiale, nel cui ambito la volontà di una parte nettamente minoritaria di popolazione mondiale di perpetrare lo sfruttamento delle risorse nell’intento di salvaguardare il proprio, ormai insostenibile, livello di consumi [5] (Bush figlio docet), si concretizza in un forte deficit ecologico che impatta, sotto varie forme, prevalentemente nelle aree geografiche economicamente e socialmente meno sviluppate. Prendere in considerazione esclusivamente gli aspetti climatici come causa migratoria significa di fatto rimuovere il ruolo e le responsabilità del sistema dominante di produzione e consumo, che secondo quest’area di studiosi, può assumere più opportunamente una denominazione di matrice geologica diversa: il Capitalocene (Moore, 2017).

      Questo nuovo concetto mette maggiormente in risalto gli aspetti degenerativi della struttura capitalistica che, in modo sempre più «classista», polarizza le vulnerabilità non solo intergenerazionali, in ottica futura, ma soprattutto quelle odierne all’interno e fra società diverse (Amato, 2019).

      Il sistema economico globalizzato, neoliberista e sviluppista, funziona da garanzia per il capitale transnazionale nell’ambito di un modello di sviluppo lineare fondato sul ciclo estrazione, produzione, consumo, sulla concentrazione di immensi profitti e la socializzazione dei costi ambientali. Tuttavia, l’adozione di politiche indirizzate verso un modello economico circolare (Circular economy) in grado parzialmente di rigenerarsi riducendo l’impatto sull’ecosistema terrestre può, a nostro avviso, non essere sufficiente a risolvere la triplice crisi in atto (ambientale, economica e sociale) in quanto non vengono messi in discussione i paradigmi della crescita economica infinita e dell’accumulazione capitalistica.

      La tematica del superamento delle strutture economiche e sociali del Capitalocene, con i suoi insostenibili modelli di produzione, di consumo e di ripartizione della ricchezza, si propone, alla luce della crisi ambientale sull’orlo del punto del non ritorno e delle disuguaglianze sociali sempre più marcate, in modo ancor più attuale, a causa dei suoi effetti degenerativi sempre più pervasivi, arrivati ormai a mettere a repentaglio il futuro del Pianeta e dell’intera umanità.

      Note:

      [1] Intergovernmental Panel On Climate Change è il principale organismo internazionale per la valutazione dei cambiamenti climatici. È stato istituito nel 1988 dalla World Meteorological Organization (WMO) e dall’United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) come uno sforzo da parte delle Nazioni Unite per fornire ai governi di tutto il mondo una chiara visione scientifica dello stato attuale delle conoscenze sul cambiamento climatico e sui suoi potenziali impatti ambientali e socio-economici. Migliaia di scienziati di tutto il mondo contribuiscono al lavoro dell’IPCC, su base volontaria.

      [2] Bill McKibben autore primo libro sul cambiamento climatico (pubblicato nel 1989) e co-fondatore di «350.org».

      [3] Esperto di diritto internazionale e relatore speciale per le Nazioni Unite sulla povertà estrema.

      [4] Migranti e cambiamenti climatici. Chi emigra, perché e come intervenire per porvi rimedio?, 26 giugno 2019.

      [5] Come certificano i dati dell’impronta ecologica. L’impronta ecologica media pro capite mondiale sostenibile è 1,8 ha mente quella effettiva è invece di 2,7 ha. Fra i singoli paesi: Qatar (11,68), Kuwait (9,72), Emirati Arabi Uniti (8,44), Usa (8,1).

      https://www.lacittafutura.it/esteri/migrazioni-climatiche-seconda-parte
      #justice_environnementale

  • MOHAMED’S STORY. Escaping the #climate_conflict_trap

    MOHAMED’S STORY is based on more than 200 targeted interviews with a variety of religious, occupational and ethno-linguistic groups living around Lake Chad as well as satellite data-based long-term observation studies of the hydrology and climate variability of the lake. The research took place in Niger, Chad, Cameroon and Nigeria from November 2017 to June 2019.


    https://shoring-up-stability.org/the-story
    #BD #climat #asile #migrations #réfugiés #réfugiés_climatiques #réfugiés_environnementaux #lac_Tchad #changement_climatique #hydrologie #Niger #Tchad #Cameroun #Nigeria #conflit_climatique #guerre #conflits #bande_dessinée #piège

    Pour lire la BD complète et la télécharger :
    https://shoring-up-stability.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/adelphi_lake-chad-climate-conflict.pdf

    ping @karine4 @reka

  • New pact paves way for innovative solutions to disaster and climate change displacement in Africa

    People fleeing disasters and climate change will be able to seek safety in neighbouring countries under the pioneering deal.

    A breakthrough agreement to assist people fleeing natural hazards, disasters and climate change in eastern Africa was concluded this week. The deal not only allows those forced to flee disaster-affected countries to seek safety in neighbouring countries, but also ensures they will not be sent home until it safe and reasonable to return.

    The new agreement – the #IGAD_Free_Movement_Protocol – was endorsed by all seven Member States of the Intergovernmental Authority on Development in Khartoum on 26 February. The Protocol follows years of negotiations and consultations. It marks a significant step in addressing the protection gap for growing numbers of people worldwide displaced by disasters, who often do not qualify for refugee status or other forms of international protection.

    It is all the more poignant that the IGAD Free Movement Protocol takes in a region that includes some of the countries worst affected by drought, flooding and environmental degradation, including Somalia, Ethiopia and South Sudan. The combination of natural hazards and disasters with other challenges – including conflict, poverty and weak governance – makes dealing with displacement in this region a complex and multifaceted issue.

    The IGAD Protocol’s protection for people affected by disasters and climate change is broad. It facilitates entry and lawful stay for those who have been displaced. It also allows those at risk of displacement to move pre-emptively as a way of avoiding, or mitigating, the impacts of a disaster.

    It specifically provides for citizens of IGAD Member States to cross borders ‘in anticipation of, during or in the aftermath of disaster’, and enables disaster-affected people to remain in another country as long as return to their country of origin ‘is not possible or reasonable’.

    The IGAD Protocol could provide inspiration and impetus for the use of free movement elsewhere in Africa as well. In the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) and the East African Community (EAC), free movement agreements are already in place. But it is not yet clear how disaster-affected communities in these regions will access free movement arrangements, or be protected from rejection or return when crossing an international border.

    The need for African governments to further consider the role of free movement in addressing disaster and climate change displacement in Africa was the subject of a regional meeting in South Africa last year. Policymakers and experts agreed that free movement could provide some of the communities most vulnerable to climate change access to safety and opportunities for more sustainable livelihoods.

    One of the advantages of using free movement arrangements to address displacement is that it obviates the need to impose specific, and sometimes artificial, distinctions between those who move. While refugee protection depends on a person meeting the technical, legal criteria of a refugee, free movement is generally available to all citizens of Member States of the same region. In some cases, a passport is not even required – possession of a national identity card may be enough to facilitate entry and stay elsewhere.

    The progressive realisation of free movement is a continent-wide goal in Africa. The African Union (AU) ‘Agenda 2063’ sets out a vision of an integrated Africa, where people and goods move freely between countries. In 2018, the AU adopted the continent-wide Protocol Relating to Free Movement of Persons, Right of Residence and Right of Establishment. The IGAD Protocol could provide a first step in supporting the other African regions and countries to develop specific frameworks and guidelines for the use of free movement in the context of disaster and climate change.

    For the potential of the IGAD Free Movement Protocol to be realised in reality, implementation is key. At present, regional and sub-regional free movement agreements across Africa’s various RECs may be undermined by restrictive laws and policies at the national level, or by onerous documentation requirements for those who move. The IGAD Roadmap to Implementation, adopted together with the Protocol, sets out specific measures to be taken by IGAD Member States when putting free movement arrangements into practice.

    The adoption of the IGAD Protocol presents a cause for celebration. It also presents a timely opportunity to further consider how countries in Africa can provide avenues to safety and security for the large, and increasing, numbers of people who move in the context of natural hazards, disasters and climate change. Action taken now could ensure the benefits of free movement for vulnerable communities well into the future.

    https://news.trust.org/item/20200228175003-4k8dq

    #réfugiés #réfugiés_climatiques #réfugiés_environnementaux #asile #migrations #changement_climatique #climat #pacte #accord #Afrique #sécheresse #inondations #dégradations_environnementales #Somalie #Ethiopie #Soudan_du_Sud #liberté_de_mouvement #liberté_de_circulation

    ping @karine4

  • The #Climate-Migration-Industrial_Complex

    Thirty years ago there were fifteen border walls around the world. Now there are seventy walls and over one billion national and international migrants. International migrants alone may even double in the next forty years due to global warming. It is not surprising that over the past two decades, we have also seen the rise of an increasingly powerful global climate-security market designed to profit from (and help sustain) these crises. The construction of walls and fences to block rising sea levels and incoming people has become one of the world’s fastest growing industries, alongside the detention and deportation of migrants, and is projected to reach $742 billion by 2023. I believe we are witnessing the emergence of what we might call a “climate-migration-industrial complex.”

    This complex is composed of private companies who profit by securitizing nation-states from the effects of climate-related events, including migration. This includes private detention centers, border construction companies, surveillance technology consultants and developers, deportation and transportation contractors, and a growing army of other subcontractors profiting from insecurity more broadly. Every feature of this crisis complex is an opportunity for profit. For example, even when security measures “fail” and migrants cross borders illegally, or remain beyond their visas to live without status as “criminals,” there is an entire wing of private companies paid to hunt them down, detain them, and deport them just across the border, where they can return and begin the market cycle all over again. Each step in the “crimmigration” process now has its own cottage industry and dedicated army of lobbyists to perpetuate the laws that support it.

    Here is the incredible double paradox that forms the backbone of the climate-migration-industrial complex: right-wing nationalists and their politicians claim they want to deport all undocumented migrants, but if they did, they would destroy their own economy. Capitalists, on the other hand, want to grow the economy with migrant labor (any honest economist will tell you that immigration almost always leads to growth in GDP), but if that labor is too expensive, then it’s not nearly as profitable.

    Trump is the Janus-faced embodiment of this anti-immigrant, pro-economy dilemma and the solution to it — not that he necessarily knows it. With one hand, migrant labor is strategically criminalized and devalorized by a xenophobic state, and with the other, it is securitized and hyper-exploited by the economy. It is a win-win situation for right-wing capitalists but a crucial element is still missing: what will continue to compel migrants to leave their homes and work as exploited criminals in an increasingly xenophobic country?

    This is where the figure of the climate migrant comes in. What we call “climate migrants” or “climate refugees” are not the victims of merely “natural disasters,” because climate change is not a strictly natural process — it is also highly political. The causes of climate-related migration are disproportionately produced by rich Western countries and the effects are disproportionately suffered by poorer countries. The circumstances that determine who is forced to migrate are also influenced by the history of colonialism, global inequality, and the same conditions that have propelled economic migration for decades. In short, the fact that climate change benefits the perpetrators of climate destruction by producing an increasing supply of desperate, criminalized, physically and economically displaced laborers is no coincidence. In fact, it is the key to the Trump “solution.”

    Another key is the use of climate change to acquire new land. When people are forced to migrate out of a territory, or when frozen territories thaw, new lands, waters, and forests become open to extractive industries like mining, drilling, fishing, and logging. Trump’s recent (and ridiculous) bid to buy the thawing territory of Greenland for its oil and gas reserves is one example of this. Climate-stricken urban areas open up new real estate markets, as the gentrification of New Orleans after hurricane Katrina illustrated. In other words, climate change might not mean the end of capitalism, but rather could actually signal its resurgence from current falling rates of ecological profit. During colonialism, everything and everyone that could be easily appropriated (oil, slaves, old-growth forests, etc.), was gobbled up. The workers who are left today under post-colonialism demand more money and more rights. The minerals left are more expensive to extract. This is why capitalists have increasingly retreated to financial speculation, and now to monetizing their own crises.

    If only there were new ways, the capitalist dreams, to kick start the economy and cheaply dislodge huge numbers of people from their land, devalorize their labor, and then appropriate that labor extremely cheaply. In other words, if climate change did not exist, capitalism would have to create it. Luckily for the capitalists, it does exist, because they did create it. Climate migrants now form what we might call a “disposable climate labor army,” conscripted out of a standing reserve of global poverty from wherever the next climate-related disaster strikes, and deployed wherever capitalism demands precarious, securitized, and criminalized labor to be exploited.

    We need to rethink the whole framing of the climate migration “crisis.” Among other things, we need a more movement-oriented political theory to grapple better with the highly mobile events of our time — what I call a “kinopolitics.” The advent of the Capitalocene/Kinocene makes possible today the insight that nature, humans, and society have always been in motion. Humans are and have always been fundamentally migratory, just as the climate and the earth are. These twin insights might sound obvious today, but if taken seriously, they offer a complete inversion of the dominant interpretive paradigms of the climate and migration crises.

    Humans and Earth have always been in motion, but not all patterns of motion are the same. There is no natural, normal, or default state of the earth or of human society. Therefore, we have to study the patterns of circulation that make possible these metastable states and not take them as given. This is what I have tried to work out in The Figure of the Migrant (2015) and Theory of the Border (2016). Unfortunately, the dominant framework for thinking about the climate and migrant crises is currently upside down. It starts from the perspective of a triple stasis: 1) that the earth and human society are in some sense separable and static, or at least stable, structures; 2) that the future should continue to be stable as well; and 3) that if there is not stability, then there is a “crisis.” Mobility, then, is a crisis only if we assume that there was or should be stasis in the first place. For example, migrants are said to destabilize society, and climate change is said to destabilize the earth.

    From a kinopolitical perspective, we can see that the opposite is, in fact, true: Humans were first migratory, and only later settled into more metastable patterns of social-circulation (made historically possible by the social expulsion and dispossession of others). Migrants are not outside society but have played a productive and reproductive role throughout history. Migrant movements are constitutive and even transformative elements of society, rather than exceptional or marginal phenomena. The real question is how we ever came to act and think as if societies were not processes of social circulation that relied on migration as their conditions of reproduction. The earth, too, was first migratory, and only later did it settle into metastable patterns of geological and atmospheric circulation (e.g. the Holocene). Why did we ever think of the earth as a stable surface, immune from human activity in the first place?

    The problem with the prevailing interpretation of climate change and migration is that the flawed paradigm that has defined the “crisis,” the notion of stasis, is also proposed as the solution “Let’s just get things back to normal stability again.” In short, I think a new paradigm is needed that does not use the same tools that generated the “crisis” to solve it — i.e. capitalism, colonialism, and the nation-state.

    Today’s migrant “crisis” is a product of the paradox at the heart of the capitalist, territorial nation-state form, just as the climate crisis is an expression of the paradox at the heart of anthropocentrism. The solutions, therefore, will not come from the forms in crisis but only from the birth of new forms-in-motion that begin with the theoretical primacy of the very characteristic that is dissolving the old forms: the inherent mobility of the migrant climate and the climate migrant.

    https://publicseminar.org/essays/the-climate-migration-industrial-complex

    #complexe_militaro-industriel #réfugiés_environnementaux #réfugiés_climatiques #murs #barrières_frontalières #business #climat #changement_climatique #sécurité #rétention #détention_administrative #privatisation #contrôles_frontaliers #kinopolitics #kinopolitique #kinocène #mobilité #circulation #crise #stabilité #philosophie #ressources_pédagogiques #Etat-nation

    –—

    #catastrophes_naturelles :

    What we call “climate migrants” or “climate refugees” are not the victims of merely “natural disasters,” because climate change is not a strictly natural process — it is also highly political. The causes of climate-related migration are disproportionately produced by rich Western countries and the effects are disproportionately suffered by poorer countries. The circumstances that determine who is forced to migrate are also influenced by the history of colonialism, global inequality, and the same conditions that have propelled economic migration for decades. In short, the fact that climate change benefits the perpetrators of climate destruction by producing an increasing supply of desperate, criminalized, physically and economically displaced laborers is no coincidence.

    –-> @karine4

    #terres #accaparement_des_terres :

    Another key is the use of climate change to acquire new land. When people are forced to migrate out of a territory, or when frozen territories thaw, new lands, waters, and forests become open to extractive industries like mining, drilling, fishing, and logging.

    –-> @odilon
    #extractivisme #colonialisme

    –---------

    @sinehebdo, un nouveau mot :
    –-> #crimmigration
    #mots #terminologie #vocabulaire

    Et aussi... la #kinocène

    –---

    Lien avec le #capitalisme :

    If only there were new ways, the capitalist dreams, to kick start the economy and cheaply dislodge huge numbers of people from their land, devalorize their labor, and then appropriate that labor extremely cheaply. In other words, if climate change did not exist, capitalism would have to create it. Luckily for the capitalists, it does exist, because they did create it. Climate migrants now form what we might call a “disposable climate labor army,” conscripted out of a standing reserve of global poverty from wherever the next climate-related disaster strikes, and deployed wherever capitalism demands precarious, securitized, and criminalized labor to be exploited.

    #expoitation #travail #disposable_climate_labor_army #pauvreté

    signalé par @isskein

    ping @fil @reka

  • Weak links: Challenging the climate & migration paradigm in the Horn of Africa & Yemen

    When mobility drivers are scrutinised and climate change is found to play a role in movement, it remains difficult to determine the extent of its influence. This paper will show that although conditions in the Horn of Africa and Yemen are variously characterised by conflict, authoritarian regimes, poor governance, poverty, and mass displacement, along with harsh environments that produce negative climate change impacts, there is scant evidence that these impacts cause intercontinental and interregional mixed migration. The linkages are hard to locate. Climate change and environmental stressors cannot easily be disaggregated from the wide range of factors affecting populations, and even where some disaggregation is evident the results are not seen in the volume, direction, or destination choices of those affected.


    http://www.mixedmigration.org/resource/challenging-the-climate-and-migration-paradigm
    #rapport #immobilité #immobilité_involontaire #mobilité #migrations #réfugiés_climatiques #réfugiés_environnementaux #asile #migrations #réfugiés #Corne_de_l'Afrique #Yémen #changement_climatique #climat #mixed_migration_centre

    –-> citation:
    “There is a strong likelihood that involuntary immobility will become the biggest and most relevant issue in the Horn of Africa when it comes to the link between environmental stress and mobility”

    –-> Cette idée de “involuntary immobility” me semble très intéressante à amener car le discours ambiant se focalise sur “migration subie/choisie” "migration volontaire/forcée"...
    #catégorie #catégorisation (ping @karine4)
    #migration_subie #migration_choisie #migration_volontaire #migration_forcée

    ping @reka

  • Davos: World needs to prepare for ’millions’ of climate refugees

    Richer countries may become a rising source of refugees as climate change forces people to flee their countries.

    The world needs to prepare for a surge in refugees with potentially millions of people being driven from their homes by the impact of climate change, the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees said on Tuesday.

    Speaking to Reuters at the #World_Economic_Forum in Davos, Switzerland, UN Commissioner Filippo Grandi said a UN ruling this week meant those fleeing as a result of climate change had to be treated by recipient countries as refugees, with broad implications for governments.

    The UN Human Rights Committee made the landmark ruling on Monday in relation to refugee-status applicant #Ioane_Teitiota, a man from the Pacific nation of #Kiribati who brought a case against New Zealand after authorities denied his claim of asylum.

    “The ruling says if you have an immediate threat to your life due to climate change, due to the climate emergency, and if you cross the border and go to another country, you should not be sent back because you would be at risk of your life, just like in a war or in a situation of persecution,” Grandi said.

    “We must be prepared for a large surge of people moving against their will,” he said. “I wouldn’t venture to talk about specific numbers. It’s too speculative, but certainly we’re talking about millions here.”

    Potential drivers of migration include wildfires like those seen in Australia, rising sea levels affecting low-lying islands, the destruction of crops and livestock in sub-Saharan Africa, and floods worldwide, including in parts of the developed world.

    For most of its 70 years, UNHCR, the UN’s refugee agency, has worked to assist those fleeing poorer countries as a result of conflict. But climate change is more indiscriminate, meaning richer countries may become a rising source of refugees.

    “It is further proof that refugee movements and the broader issue of migration of populations ... is a global challenge that cannot be confined to a few countries,” said Grandi.

    The UNHCR’s budget has risen from $1bn a year in the early 1990s to $8.6bn in 2019 as conflicts in Iraq, Afghanistan and Syria have forced civilians to flee, and the agency now assists more than 70 million forcibly displaced people globally.

    Turkey is the largest recipient of this aid, with more than four million refugees and asylum seekers, the vast majority from Syria. This has strained Turkey’s public finances and led President Tayyip Erdogan to demand more assistance from Europe.

    Last November, Erdogan threatened to open the door for Syrian refugees to head to Europe unless the European Union stepped up. He is now calling for the “resettlement” of up to one million Syrians in the north of their homeland.

    Grandi said European governments needed to think hard about solutions to the migrant crisis that has affected them since 2015 - but also show more understanding of Turkey’s situation.

    “We must recognise that for the past several years [Turkey] has been hosting the largest refugee population in the world,” he said. “There’s a lot of political talk. I concentrate on the substance of this, which is ’let’s strengthen Turkey’s ability to host refugees until they can go back safely, voluntarily to their countries’.”

    https://www.aljazeera.com/ajimpact/davos-world-prepare-millions-climate-refugees-200121175217520.html
    #réfugiés_climatique #réfugiés_environnementaux #Davos #HCR #WEF

  • Historic UN Human Rights case opens door to climate change asylum claims

    In its first ruling on a complaint by an individual seeking asylum from the effects of climate change, the UN Human Rights Committee* has stated that countries may not deport individuals who face climate change-induced conditions that violate the right to life.

    In 2015, #Ioane_Teitiota ’s asylum application in New Zealand was denied, and he was deported with his wife and children to his home country of #Kiribati. He filed a complaint to the UN Human Rights Committee, arguing that by deporting him, New Zealand had violated his right to life. Mr. Teitiota argued that the rise in sea level and other effects of climate change had rendered Kiribati uninhabitable for all its residents. Violent land disputes occurred because habitable land was becoming increasingly scarce. Environmental degradation made subsistence farming difficult, and the freshwater supply was contaminated by salt water.

    The Committee determined that in Mr. Teitiota’s specific case, New Zealand’s courts did not violate his right to life at the time of the facts, because the thorough and careful evaluation of his testimony and other available information led to the determination that, despite the serious situation in Kiribati, sufficient protection measures were put in place. “Nevertheless,” said Committee expert Yuval Shany, “this ruling sets forth new standards that could facilitate the success of future climate change-related asylum claims.”

    The Committee also clarified that individuals seeking asylum status are not required to prove that they would face imminent harm if returned to their countries. The Committee reasoned that climate change-induced harm can occur both through sudden-onset events (such as intense storms and flooding), and slow-onset processes (such as sea level rise, salinization and land degradation). Both sudden-onset events and slow-onset processes can prompt individuals to cross borders to seek protection from climate change-related harm.

    The Committee also highlighted the role that the international community must play in assisting countries adversely affected by climate change. The Committee stated that without robust national and international efforts, the effects of climate change in sending states may trigger the #non-refoulement obligations of receiving states and that – given that the risk of an entire country becoming submerged under water is such an extreme risk – the conditions of life in such a country may become incompatible with the right to life with dignity before the risk is realized.

    The ruling marks the first decision by a UN human rights treaty body on a complaint by an individual seeking asylum protection from the effects of climate change.

    See the full Human Rights Committee ruling here: https://tbinternet.ohchr.org/_layouts/15/treatybodyexternal/Download.aspx?symbolno=CCPR/C/127/D/2728/2016&Lang=en

    https://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=25482&LangID=E

    #réfugiés #asile #migrations #réfugiés_climatiques #réfugiés_environnementaux #UN #ONU #renvois #expulsions #refoulement #Nouvelle_Zélande #justice #droit_à_la_vie #inhabitabilité #dignité

    Sur ce cas, déjà signalé sur seenthis:
    En 2015: https://seenthis.net/messages/391645
    En 2013: https://seenthis.net/messages/187732

    ping @isskein @karine4 @reka

  • Climate change ’impacts women more than men’ - BBC News
    https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-43294221

    Women are more likely than men to be affected by climate change, studies show.

    UN figures indicate that 80% of people displaced by climate change are women.

    Roles as primary caregivers and providers of food and fuel make them more vulnerable when flooding and drought occur.

  • “You can’t make a living here anymore.” The Honduran climate-movers

    Te espero como la lluvia de mayo. I wait for you like the rain of May — a popular refrain among farmers in Central America, where the first rainfall in May long signaled the end of the dry season. But over the past decade, in what is known as the Central American Dry Corridor — a vast swath that stretches, unbroken, from Guatemala to northern Costa Rica — the rain is no longer guaranteed. Farmers who used to count on two harvests every year are now fortunate to get one.

    In southern Honduras, valleys that were once lush and fertile are now filled with stunted cornstalks and parched riverbeds. Adobe shacks erode on mountainsides, abandoned by those who left with no intention of returning.

    The droughts have forced entire generations to migrate in search of jobs; left behind are the elderly, who often care for grandchildren when their parents depart. “You can’t make a living here anymore,” says José Tomás Aplicano, who is 76 and a lifelong resident of Apacilagua, a village in southern Honduras. Aplicano has watched as countless neighbors, and his own children, moved away. His youngest daughter, Maryori, is the last to stay behind, but he knows she will leave as soon as she finishes high school. “She has to look for another environment to see if she finds work to survive,” he says.

    Many head north; U.S. Customs and Border Patrol data shows that migration from the Dry Corridor has spiked over the past few years. Some spend seasons harvesting coffee or sugar cane in less affected areas of the country. Others move to the city, lured by the prospect of a factory job with steady pay.

    https://story.californiasunday.com/honduras-climate-movers
    #photographie #changement_climatique #migrations #réfugiés_environnementaux #réfugiés_climatiques #réfugiés #asile #sécheresse

    –----------
    Et un nouveau mot, en anglais:
    #climate-movers
    #terminologie #mots #vocabulaire
    ping @sinehebdo

    –---------

    see as well:
    Why the Migrant Caravan Story Is a Climate Change Story
    https://seenthis.net/messages/739539